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■     '  '"   '  '•-  '  AN  IMPROVED  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION 

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YOUNG    CARPENTERS    ASSISTANT; 


A  COMPLETE 
j 

SYSTEM   OF   ARCHITECTURE 


fOR 

'    /     CARPENTERS,  JOINERS,  AND  WORKMEN  IN  GENERAL, 


ADAPTED    TO    THE 


»  STYLE   OF    BUILDING    IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


REVISED  AND  CORRECTED,  WITH  SEVERAL  ADDITIONAL  AttTlCLES,  AND  FORTY  EIGHT  NEW  DESIGNS,  CHIEFLlf 
V  >    •         OF   FULL  SIZE   WORKING    DRAWINGS    OF   MODERN    FINISH,    IN    DETAIL, 

'  PARTICULARLY  ADAPTED  FOR  COUNTRY  USE. 


BY   JOHN   HAVILAND,  ARCHITECT. 


PUBLISHED  BY  M'CARTY  &  DAVIS— 171  MARKET  STREET. 

1833. 


9  »•         • 


«  • 


Entered,  according  to  the  act  of  congress,  in  the  year  1833,  by  M'Carty.&  Davis, 
in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  district  court  of  the  eastern  district  of  Poiinsvlvania. 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    IMPROVED    EDITION. 


In  offering  to  the  Public  a  new  Edition  of  the  Young  Carpenter's  Assistant,  it 
will  be  proper  to  make  a  few  general  remarks  on  the  original  object  of  the  author, 
and  the  nature  of  the  improvements  which  are  now  effected.  When  this  work  was 
first  published,  nothing  on  Architecture  had  previously  appeared  in  this  Country. 
All  foreign  authors  adapted  their  examples  and  observations  almost  entirely  to  the 
style  of  Building  in  their  respective  countries,  which  in  many  instances  differed 
materially  from  ours.  Hence,  to  the  American  Student,  a  work  embracing  the 
practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  of  Architecture,  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  this  country,  had  become  a  great  desideratum  ;  in  supplying  of  which, 
none  succeeded  better  than  the  Young  Carpenter's  Assistant. 

The  rapidity  with  which  every  Science  is  advancing  in  this  country,  sufficiently 
indicates  the  great  improvements  necessarily  made  in  the  most  important  of  all 
subjects,  as  it  regards  our  health  and  convenience, — the  proper  construction  and 
building  of  our  houses.  Whence,  the  original  work,  published  now  sixteen  years 
ago,  must  consequently  be  found  considerably  deficient  in  information  and  examples, 
and  a  new  edition  has  been  in  great  demand. 

For  the  rcvisal  and  correction  of  this  new  edition  of  the  Young  Carpenter's 
Assistant,  the  Publisher  is  indebted  to  the  care  and  professional  knowledge  of  Mr. 
John  Haviland,  Architect,  whose  great  practical  experience  so  pre-eminently  enables 
him  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  present  time,  and  to  impart  much  additional  informa- 
tion and  valuable  matter  on  each  subject. 

A  series  of  forty-eight  New  Designs  and  beautiful  Specimens,  chiefly  of  full 
size,  accompanied  with  their  Working-Drawings,  and  parts  explanatory  of  the  Modern 
Finish,  in  detail,  have  been  introduced  by  Mr.  Haviland  for  the  immediate  applica- 
tion of  the  Practical  Carpenter  and  Builder.  They  are  calculated  to  instruct  him 
either  in  the  designing  or  execution  of  Dwelling-Houses,  Banks,  Prisons,  Doors, 
Windows,  Railing,  Skirting,  Cornices,  and  Marble  Mantles.  The  whole  is  particu- 
larly adapted  for  country  use ;  and,  as  nothing  has  been  omitted  which  can  tend 
to  his  information,  it  is  presumed  that  this  will  be  rendered  the  most  complete  and 
useful  book  to  the  young  workman. 

Philadelphia,  July,  1833. 

3 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 


Having  been  for  some  time  past  in  the  practice  of  teaching  the  Rudiments  of 
Architecture,  I  have  experienced  mucli  inconvenience,  for  want  of  suitable  books  on 
the  subject.  All  that  have  yet  appeared,  have  been  written  by  foreign  authors,  who 
have  adapted  their  examples  and  observations  almost  entirely  to  the  style  of  build- 
ing in  their  respective  countries,  which  in  many  instances  differs  very  materially 
from  ours.  Hence  the  American  Student  of  Architecture  has  been  taxed  with  the 
purchase  of  books,  two-thirds  of  the  contents  of  which  were,  to  liim,  unnecessary  ; 
when,  at  the  same  time,  in  a  large  and  expensive  volume  of  this  kind,  he  has  not 
always  been  able  to  fmd  the  information  wanted. 

Nothing  on  Architecture  has  heretofore  appeared  in  this  Country,  where  the  field 
for  improvement  in  every  useful  art  and  science  is,  perhaps,  more  extensive  than  in 
any  other.  Why  there  has  not,  appears  to  mc  matter  of  surprise,  whilst  we  have 
among  us  men  of  talents,  full}'  acquainted  with  the  subject ;  some  of  whom  are  also 
men  of  leisure.  Perhaps  they  have  not  viewed  the  subject  in  the  same  light,  or 
given  to  it  the  same  degree  of  importance,  that  I  have.  For  my  part,  I  can  con- 
ceive of  kw  objects  of  more  consequence,  in  a  new  and  improving  country  like  our 
own,  as  it  regards  our  health  and  convenience,  or  as  it  may  gratify  the  fancy,  than 
the  proper  construction  and  building  of  our  houses :  whence  I  conclude  it  a  matter 
of  interest,  not  only  meriting  the  attention  of  every  Carpenter,  but  of  every  man 
who  has  time  and  inclination  to  devote  to  the  study,  and  more  especially  such  as 
may  have  occasion  to  build. 

Under  the  influence  of  these  impressions,  and  at  the  solicitation  of  some  of  my 
friends,  I  have  been  induced  to  this  undertaking.  How  far  I  have  succeeded,  I 
leave  to  those  who  are  capable  of  judging.  No  doubt  they  will  discover  in  it  some 
imperfections  ;  yet  surely  it  will  not  be  considered  as  arrogance  in  mc  to  conclude 
it  better  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  this  Country,  tluui  any  foreign 
production  of  the  kind.  I  have  not,  from  prejudice,  omitted  any  thing  useful  con- 
tained in  the  books  already  published  on  the  subject :  neither  have  I,  on  account 
of  their  authority,  or  from  partiality,  retained  any  thing  I  apprehended  useless  to  the 
young  Carpenter  of  the  United  States.  The  proportion  of  the  four  Orders  I  have 
taken  from  Paul's  Works,  with  but  little  variation  ;  and,  for  some  of  the  Geometrical 
Problems,  I  am  indebted  to  Peter  Nicholson,  whose  Works  are  held  in  deserved 
estimation.  In  stairs,  and  framing  roofs,  I  have  given  the  most  recent  improvements 
of  this  Country  ;  and  have  endeavored,  through  the  whole,  to  adapt  the  explanations 
to  the  capacities  of  Learners  ;  which  accounts  for  a  minuteness  that  may  possibly 
appear  tedious  to  those  who  need  no  instruction. 

Philadelphia,  1805. 
4 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2009  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/improvedenlargedOObidd 


PLATE  1. 


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THE 

YOUJVG    CARPENTER'S    ASSISTANT. 


AS  this  work  is  intended  for  the  Student  in  Architecture,  it  seems  requisite  to 
give  some  directions,  respecting  the  necessary  instruments  for  drawing,  &c. 

Fio-.  A,  Plate  1,  is  a  representation  of  a  draught-board,  to  which  the  paper  used 
in  drawing  is  to  be  fixed.  This  board  is  composed  of  a  frame  of  mahogany  or 
other  hard  wood  (the  outside  edges  of  which  should  be  exactly  straight  and  square) 
with  a  panel  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  frame,  to  be  let  in  from  the  back,  and 
to  lie  in  a  rabbit  in  the  frame ;  there  to  be  secured  l)y  small  wooden  buttons.  Fig. 
B  is  a  section  of  the  board,  a  and  6  are  the  buttons  by  which  the  panel  is  kept  in 
its  place.  Eight  or  ten  of  these  may  be  necessary.  The  panel  should  be  clamped, 
to  remedy  any  disadvantage  attending  the  shrinking  of  the  wood.  It  would  not  be 
amiss,  before  making  the  draught-board,  to  ascertain  the  size  of  the  paper  to  be 
used,  and  make  the  panel  about  2  inches  less  each  way  than  the  sheet.  In  apply- 
ing this  board  to  use,  lay  the  paper  on  a  table,  and  moisten  one  side  of  it  with  a 
wet  sponge ;  place  the  board  upside  down  near  it ;  take  out  the  panel  and  lay  it  on 
the  paper,  one  inch  of  ^^  hich  will  extend  beyond  the  panel  all  round  ;  take  hold  of 
the  edges  of  the  paper,  and  lift  them  both  into  the  frame ;  fasten  the  buttons  and 
dry  the  paper  by  the  fire ;  when  it  will  be  smooth  as  a  drum-head. 

Fig.  C  is  the  T  square,  the  blade  of  which  should  be  long  enough  to  reach  nearly 
across  the  draught-board,  and  should  not  exceed  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  Similar  in  form  to  this  a  bevel  may  be  made,  with  the  blade  movable 
on  a  centre  in  the  stock.  The  application  of  these,  in  drawing  parallel  lines  on  the 
draught-board,  is  so  obvious  that  I  need  not  describe  it. 

In  choosing  a  case  of  mathematical  instruments,  attention  should  be  paid  to  its 
containing  the  scales  of  equal  parts  on  the  thin  ivory  or  box-rule  ;  as,  in  drawing  the 
four  Orders  of  Architecture,  they  are  all  proportioned  by  such  a  scale  ;  which  indeed 
is  the  case  with  almost  all  Architectural  drawings ;  and  with  a  little  attention  the 
Student  will  generally  be  able  to  find  a  scale  ready  made,  with  greater  accuracy 
than  he  would  be  able  to  make  one  himself  The  case  should  also  contain  a  bow- 
pen  or  compass,  a  useful  instrument  for  drawing  very  small  circles.  With  these,  a 
small  piece  of  gum  elastic  for  rubbing  out  black-lead  lines,  a  stick  of  Indian  ink, 
twocamels'-hair  pencils,  one  large,  the  other  small,  and  a  black-lead  pencil,  will  con- 
stitute the  instruments  necessary  in  learning  Architectural  drawing.  It  may  be 
proper  to  observe,  that  no  kind  of  ink  should  be  used  except  Indian  ink.  For  draw- 
ing lines,  this  should  be  dissolved  some  time  before  it  is  to  be  used  ;  but  for  shading, 
it  Is  best  to  drop  a  little  water  oii  a  plate  or  saucer,  and  rub  the  stick  of  ink  in  it  till 
it  is  of  a  proper  shade. 

5  B 


6  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER-S  ASSISTANT. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  explain  some  of  the  most  useful  geometrical  problems, 
which  every  Carpenter  ought  to  be  acquainted  with. 

To  raise  a  perpendicular  or  plumb-line,  from  a  given  point  on  a 

straight  line : 

Let  n  I),  fig.  E,  be  the  line,  and  c  the  point  given,  from  which  the  perpendicular  is 
to  be  drawn.  Take  any  space  with  the  compasses  at  random,  asci;  with  that 
space  set  ofl'  c  a  and  c  b ;  then  place  one  foot  of  the  compasses  in  a,  and  extend  the 
other  beyond  r,  and  describe  a  small  part  of  a  circle,  as  at  d ;  then,  with  the  same 
extent  of  compasses,  place  one  foot  in  i,  and  make  a  part  of  a  circle  to  cross  the 
other  at  d ;  through  the  intersection  of  these  circles,  a  line  drawn  to  e,  will  be  per- 
pendicular or  plumb. 

From  any  given  point  over  a  right  line,  to  let  fall  a  line  which  will  be 
perpendicular  to  that  right  line : 

Let  c,  fig.  F,  be  the  point  given ;  and  a  b  the  right  line.  With  one  foot  of  the 
compasses  in  c,  extend  the  other  foot  so  as  to  describe  the  arc  or  part  of  a  circle  a 
b;  place  one  foot  of  the  compasses  at  the  intersection  of  this  arc  with  the  right  line 
at  6,  and  extend  them  so  as  to  describe  a  small  arc  at  d ;  with  the  same  extent  of 
the  compasses  place  one  foot  in  the  intersection  at  «,  and  cross  the  arc  at  d ;  draw 
a  line  from  r,  through  the  intersection  of  the  arc  at  6?,  and  it  will  be  perpendicular 
to  the  right  line  a  b. 


D 


On  the  end  of  a  right  line,  to  draw  a  line  which  will  be  perpendicular, 
or  at  right  angles  with  that  right  line  : 


'&""-  "•"(-,"''"  .. ^..i.  ^..«>,  i.j,. 


Let  a  i,  fig.  G,  be  the  right  line ;  at  some  point  over  this  line,  as  at  (/,  place  one 
foot  of  the  compasses,  and  extend  the  other  to  the  end  of  the  line  at  i,  and  describe 
the  circle  at  «  be;  through  the  intersection  at  o,  and  the  centre  at  d^  draw  the  line 
a  d  c ;  from  c  draAv  the  line  c  b,  which  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  o  b. 

To  describe  a  square,  whose  sides  shall  all  be  equal  to  a  given  right  line : 

Let  a  b,  fig.  H,  be  the  line  given  ;  with  one  foot  of  the  compasses  on  a  describe 
the  arc/r  b ;  then  with  one  foot  in  b  describe  ace;  divide  the  space  c  b  into  two 
parts  at  d ;  with  the  extent  c  d  in  the  compasses  set  off  c/and  c  e;  connect  af,f 
e,  and  e  b,  and  the  square  will  be  complete. 

To  lay  off  a  square  with  a  ten-foot  rod : 

Let  a  b,  fig.  1,  be  the  given  line ;  with  eight  feet  of  the  rod  from  b  make  a  mark 
at  a ;  with  six  feet  from  b  describe  an  arc  at  c  ;  and  with  ten  feet  from  a  cross  the 
arc  at  c ;  draw  the  line  from  the  intersection  at  c  to  b,  and  it  will  be  square  with 
the  line  a  b. 


PLulTE  2. 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  7 

Three  points  (not  in  a  right  hne)  or  a  small  part  of  a  circle,  being  given  to  find 
a  centre  which  will  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through  the  point  or  complete  the 
circle : 

Let  a  b  c,  fig.  K,  be  the  three  points  or  part  of  a  circle  given ;  to  find  the  centre 
of  which,  place  the  foot  of  the  compasses  in  a  and  describe  an  arc  at  d  and  c ;  with 
the  same  extent  place  the  foot  of  the  compasses  in  b,  and  cross  the  arcs  of  rf  and  c; 
and  at  the  same  time  describe  arcs  at  c  and/;  then  with  the  same  extent  of  the 
compasses  and  one  foot  in  c  cross  the  arc  at  c  and/;  draw  lines  through  the  inter- 
sections of  the  arcs  at  d  and  o  to  ^ ;  and  through  the  intersections  e  and  /to  g ; 
the  intersections  of  these  lines  at  g  is  the  centre  by  which  a  circle  may  be  drawn 
to  pass  through  the  points  a  b  c. 

To  describe  an  Ellipsis  mathematically  to  any  given  length  and  breadth : 

Let  A  C,  fig.  A,  Plate  2,  be  the  transverse,  and  B  D  the  conjugate  diameters ; 
take  half  of  B  D  and  set  it  in  from  C  to  o ;  divide  what  remains  from  o  to  3  into 
three  equal  parts :  set  one  of  these  parts  from  o  to  a ;  make  the  distance  from  3  to 
b  equal  to  the  distance  from  3  to  a  ;  with  the  extent  a  b  in  the  compasses  describe 
the  arcs  db  c  and  d  a  c;  these  four  points  are  the  centre  by  which  the  Ellipsis  is 
drawn,  and  the  dotted  lines  passing  through  them  and  touching  the  Ellipsis  mark 
how  much  of  it  is  drawn  by  each  centre. 

To  describe  an  Ellipsis  with  a  trammel : 

A  B  C  D,  fig.  B,  represents  the  trammel,  being  two  strips  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles  and  halved  together.  In  the  middle  of  these  strips  is  a  groove ;  a  d  is 
the  tramel-rod,  on  which  are  blocks  made  movable  like  gauge-heads,  with  a  pin 
to  each  small  enough  to  slide  along  the  groove ;  at  J  is  a  pencil ;  fix  the  block  or 
pin  c  so  far  from  d  as  to  be  equal  to  half  the  conjugate  diameter,  and  the  block  or 
pin  b  so  far  from  d  as  to  be  equal  to  hajf  the  transverse  diameter;  place  the  pins  in 
the  groove  of  the  trammel,  and  on  sliding  them  along  the  pencil  at  d  they  will 
describe  an  Ellipsis. 

An  Ellipsis  being  given,  to  find  the  centre  and  two  axes  thereof: 

Let  A  B  C  D,  fig.  C,  be  the  Ellipsis ;  draw  a  line  at  random,  as  a  b  ;  through 
another  part  of  the  Ellipsis  draw  d  c  parallel  to  a  b ;  through  the  middle  of  each  of 
these  draw  ef,  on  the  middle  of  which  is  the  centre  of  the  Ellipsis ;  on  vvhich,  with 
an  extent  of  the  compasses  of  less  than  half  the  transverse  and  more  than  half  the 
conjugate  diameters,  describe  the  circle  intersecting  the  Ellipsis  in  g  h  i  and  k ; 
through  the  middle  o( g  h  and  i  k  draw  the  line  A  C,  which  is  the  transverse  diame- 
ter ;  bisect  or  divide  this  at  right  angles,  and  it  will  give  tl;e  conjugate  diameter. 

To  describe  a  regular  Polygon  of  any  number  of  sides,  the  length  of 

one  side  being  given  : 

Let  a  b,  fig.  D,  be  the  side  given ;  on  one  end,  as  b,  with  any  convenient  radius  or 
extent  of  compasses  describe  a  semicircle ;  divide  the  round  of  this  into  as  many 


8  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

parts  as  the  Polygon  is  to  have  sides ;  leave  out  two  of  these  parts,  and  with  (he 
length  a  b  in  the  compasses  set  off  from  b  to  c,  then  from  c  to  d,  then  d  to  r.  When 
this  is  done,  place  the  compasses  on  a,  set  off  af,  ihenfg,  connect  g  and  c,  and  the 
Polygon  is  completed. 


PLATE  3. 


To  describe  an  Octagon  within  a  square,  fig.  1 : 

Draw  the  diagonal  a  b,  and  with  the  extent  b d  draw  the  arc  c  dc :  then  will  c /  be 
the  quantity  to  lay  off  from  each  corner  of  the  square ;  or,  if  it  is  a  piece  of  wood, 
to  set  the  gauge  for  the  quantity  to  be  taken  off  from  each  corner. 

To  describe  a  segment  of  a  circle  of  large  radius  with  a  trammel,  fig.  2: 

Let  a  i  be  the  chord,  and  d  c  the  height  of  the  segment ;  lay  a  strip  with  a  straight 
edge  from  h  to  c,  and  then  another  from  c  to  c  parallel  to  a  b  ;  fasten  them  together 
and  brace  them  with  a  lath  ;  fix  pins  in  the  points  a  c  and  b,  and  slide  the  frame  or 
trammel  along  these  pins,  and  the  angle  of  it  will  describe  the  segment  required. 

To  draw  a  segment  of  a  circle  by  intersecting  lines,  fig.  3 : 

Let  a  b  be  the  length  or  chord  of  the  segment,  and  c  d  the  height ;  draw  the  chord- 
line  d  i,  at  right  angles  to  which  draw  be;  through  d  and  parallel  to  a  b,  draw/d  e  ; 
divide  f  e  and  a  b  into  any  even  number  of  parts,  say  10,  connect  those  divisions  by 
the  line  1  1,2  2,  3  3,  «kc. ;  draw  h  b  perpendicular  to  a  b,  and  divide  it  into  5  parts ; 
from  the  centre  d  draw  lines  to  these  divisions,  and  where  these  lines  cross  the  lines 
1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  &c.,  are  the  points  through  which  to  trace  the  segment. 

To  di-aw  the  arches  of  a  groin,  so  that  they  shall  intersect  or  mitre  truly  together 
over  a  straight  line,  from  a  given  arch  of  any  form,  fig.  4 : 

A  is  the  plan  to  be  covered,  P»  the  arch  of  one  side,  which  is  here  a  semicircle ; 
draw  the  chord-line  a  b,  which  divide  into  any  number  of  parts ;  from  tlie  centre 
draw  lines  through  those  parts,  touching  the  arch  ;  draw  b  c  perpendicular  to  the 
base-line,  and  from  the  crown  of  the  arch  at  a,  draw  lines  througli  the  points  of  in- 
tersection of  the  former  lines  with  the  arch-line,  to  the  perpendicular  line  b  c ;  lay 
off  the  width  of  one  of  the  other  arches,  as  A  r  at  C,  being  the  width  of  one  end  of 
the  plan  A ;  set  up  the  height  of  the  middle  of  the  arch  the  same  as  B ;  draw  the 
two  chord-lines  (t  b,  and  a  c ;  divide  them  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  a  i  in  B  ; 
transfer  the  perpendicular  line  b  c  from  B  to  C,  draw  lines  from  the  middle  of  the 
base  through  the  divisions  on  the  chord-line,  and  from  the  top  of  the  arch  to  the 
divisions  on  the  perpendicular  line,  through  the  intersection  of  these  lines,  the  arch- 


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THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  9 

line  required  may  be  traced  :  D  is  the  form  of  the  groin  or  diagonal  bracket  traced 
in  the  same  manner.  This  method  may  be  applied  to  arches  of  any  form,  whether 
Elliptical,  Circular,  or  Gothic. 

To  divide  a  right  line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  fig.  5 : 

Let  A  B  be  the  right  line  given,  to  be  divided  into  eight  parts ;  from  one  end  of 
it,  as  at  A,  drawing  a  line  making  an  acute  angle,  as  the  line  A  a ;  from  the  other 
end  of  the  line,  at  B,  draw  another  line  parallel  to  A  a,  as  B  6 ;  set  ofi'  on  these  two 
lines,  beginning  at  A  and  B,  the  number  of  divisions  required,  without  regard  to 
their  turning  out  to  the  length  of  the  line,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  iSic.  connect  these  by  the 
lines  1  7,  2  6,  &c.  and  where  these  lines  cross  the  line  A  B  is  the  point  of  division 
required. 


PLATE  4 

REPRESENTS  A  FEW 

MOUI^DINGS, 

The  centres  for  drawing  which,  being  all  represented,  are  perhaps  sufficiently 
clear. 

The  Consol,  or  Key,  should  be  in  height  equal  to  twice  its  width  at  bottom. 

The  Vase  and  Baluster  are  to  show  the  manner  of  drawing  compound  circular 
lines ;  the  meeting  of  the  dotted  lines  showing  the  centre.  The  Student  will  observe, 
that  when  it  is  required  to  draw  two  or  more  circular  lines  of  different  radii,  which 
are  to  appear  smooth  round,  the  two  centres,  and  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  difler- 
ent  circles,  should  always  be  in  a  right  line. 


PLATE  5. 

Fig.  A  shows  the  method  of  enlarging  a  draught  of  a  cornice. 

Let  the  line  a  b  be  the  height  to  which  it  is  required  to  enlarge  the  cornice. 
Wherever  this  line  crosses  the  different  members  of  the  draught,  mark  it,  and  these 
marks  will  give  the  height  of  the  different  members  of  the  enlarged  cornice. 

To  find  the  projection,  enlarged  in  proportion : 

From  the  point  c,  directly  over  the  front  of  the  wall,  draw  the  line  c  rf  at  right 
angles  or  square  with  the  line  a  b,  on  this  line  square  over  the  projection  of  the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  draught,  and  that  will  give  the  projection  required. 

C 


10  THE   YOUNG    CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

Fig.  B  is  the  method  of  contracting  a  draught. 

Let  a  h  be  equal  to  the  Iieight  of  the  cornice  required  ;  from  h  draw  the  hne  b  c, 
and,  where  that  crosses  the  difl'erent  members  of  the  draugiit,  draw  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  cross  a  h,  which  will  be  the  height  proportioned. 

To  find  the  projection,  contracted  in  proportion : 

From  c  draw  the  line  c  a  at  right  angles  or  square  with  h  c,  then  draw  down  the 
projection  of  the  draught  on  this  line,  and  from  this  line  carry  them  square  out  to 
the  line  d  e,  which  will  be  the  projection  contracted  in  proportion  to  a  b. 

These  two  cornices,  with  figures  C  and  D,  may  serve  as  examples  for  the  Student 
to  apply  to  frontispieces,  &c. ;  and  the  other  three,  E,  F,  and  G,  are  examples  of 
Stucco  cornice  in  the  present  fashion  ;  of  which  G  may  serve  where  the  story  is  low, 
and  but  little  room  over  the  window. 


PLATE  6. 

Fig.  A  shows  the  manner  of  finding  the  form  of  a  raking  cornice,  which  will 
mitre  with  a  level  one  ;  and  the  return  at  top  for  an  open  pediment. 

Let  a  be  the  level  cornice ;  from  the  face  of  this,  nearly  at  equal  distances  apart 
on  the  face,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  rake;  then  draw  the  level  lines  1  1,  2  2,  &c. 
from  the  face  of  the  cornice  a  to  the  perpendicular  line  de;  Ath.^ f  g  at  b  square 
with  the  rake,  and  make  1  1,2  2,  &c.  at  h  equal  to  1  1,2  2,  &c.  at  a ;  and  trace  the 
cornice  through  the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c ;  which  will  be  the  form  of  the  cornice 
required.  The  return  at  top  is  set  oft'  in  the  same  manner  from  the  perpendicular 
line  h  ?,  excepting  that  the  projections  at  a  are  taken  on  the  raking  line. 

Fig.  B  is  the  method  of  finding  the  sweep  of  a  cornice,  which  will  bend 
round  a  circular  wall  and  stand  on  a  spring. 

Let  a  be  a  plan  of  the  wall,  d  the  centre  of  it,  and  b  the  cornice  drawn  to  its 
proper  spring.  Draw  the  line  c  e  touching  the  face  of  the  cornice,  and  continued 
till  it  intersects  a  line  drawn  perpendicular  from  the  centre  d ;  the  intersection  at  c 
will  be  the  centre  from  which  to  draw  the  cornice. 

Fig.  C  is  the  method  of  drawing  a  cornice,  to  bend  round  the  inside  of  a 
room ;  which,  being  done  by  the  same  rule  as  the  former,  needs  no  further  ex- 
planation. 


PLATE  6. 


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THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S    ASSISTANT.  11 

TO  PROPORTION  THE  FOUR  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

THE    TUSCAN    ORDER* 

PLATE  7. 

When  this  Order  is  to  stand  on  a  Pedestal,  the  whole  height  must  be  divided  into 
five  parts,  one  of  which  is  the  Pedestal,  one-fifth  of  the  remainder  is  the  Entablature, 
the  other  four-fifths  are  the  length  of  the  Column,  including  the  Base  and  Capital : 
This  divided  into  seven  parts,  one  of  them  is  the  diameter  of  the  Column  just  above 
its  base ;  this  diameter,  being  divided  into  sixty  parts  or  minutes,  is  the  scale  by 
w  hich  all  the  mouldings  are  proportioned,  both  in  height  and  projection.  A  refer- 
ence to  fig.  1  will  explain  the  proportions.  Fig.  2  shows  the  proportion  of  the 
mouldings;  the  heights,  by  the  scale  of  60  minutes,  being  set  down  on  the 
outside  list,  marked  at  top  with  the  letter  H,  and  the  projections  measuring  from 
the  perpendicular  line  of  the  shaft  of  the  Column,  and  the  front  of  the  Pedestal,  in 
the  other  list  marked  P.  The  Column  in  this  Order  is  diminished  to  45  minutes  at 
its  upper  end. 


THE    DORIC    ORDER.t 

PLATE  8. 

The  general  proportions  of  this  Order  are  the  same  as  the  Tuscan,  excepting  that 
the  diameter  of  the  Column  is  one-eighth  of  its  length.  The  Column  in  this  Order 
is  diminished  at  its  upper  end  to  50  minutes ;  the  width  of  the  triglyphs  in  the  frize 
is  30  minutes  ;'  the  distance  from  the  middle  of  one  triglyph  to  the  middle  of  the  next, 
75  minutes ;  this  should  be  attended  to  in  using  this  Order  and  those  that  follow,  in 
Porticos,  Colonnades,  &c.;  as  a  triglyph  or  modillion  must  always  stand  exactly  over 
the  middle  of  the  Column.     The  distance  between  the  centres  of  modillions  in  'this 


*  Of  tlie  Tuscan  there  arc  no  examples  of  Antiquity  remaining,  excepting  the  Trajan  and  Antonine 
Columns  at  Rome,  whicii  are  generally  reckoned  of  this  Order,  being  nearer  in  their  proportions  and 
mouldings  to  it,  than  to  any  other.  It  is  supposed  to  receive  its  name  from  Tuscany,  being  more  used  there 
than  elsewhere. 

t  Doric,  so  called  from  Dorus,  who,  according  to  Vitruvius,  built  a  Temple  dedicated  to  Juno  in  the  City 
of  Argos,  wherein  the  proportions  of  this  Order  were  used,  and  whicli  were  afterwards  adopted  by  the  CJities 
of  Achaia. 

The  ornaments  of  this  Order  clearly  evince  it  to  have  been  the  first  invented  of  all  the  Orders  of  Archi- 
tecture. In  many  instances  the  Columns  were  very  short  in  proportion  to  their  thickness,  and  without 
bases ;  and  between  the  triglyphs  there  is  generally  placed  a  bull's  skull.  The  Architrave  is  sometimes 
made  much  wider  than  Jiere"  represented,  with  only  one  facia ;  but  I  have  preferred  these  proportions,  as 
handsomer. 


12  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

Order  is  so  great,  that  the  Columns  cannot  be  coupled,  as  they  frequently  arc 
in  other  Orders ;  the  flutes  of  the  triglyphs  arc  5  minutes  wide  each,  and  sunk 
2  and  a  half  minutes.  The  plancers  and  underside  of  the  modillion  arc  repre- 
sented in  Plate  13,  and  the  method  of  drawing  the  scotia  of  the  base  is  shown  in 
Plate  IG. 


THE    IONIC    ORDER* 

PLATE  9. 

One-fifth  of  the  whole  height  of  this  Order  is  given  to  the  Pedestal ;  one-sixth 
of  the  remainder  is  the  Entablature ;  and,  the  Column  being  divided  into  9  parts, 
one  of  them  is  the  diameter.  The  Column  in  this  Order  is  diminished  to  50 
minutes  at  its  upper  end;  the  distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  modillions  is  31 
minutes. 


PLATE  10. 

To  drcnv  the  Volute. 


Divide  the  whole  height  of  the  volute,  as  in  fig.  1,  into  8  parts;  in  the  fourth  of 
these  from  the  bottom  draw  a  circle  equal  to  one  of  those  parts,  within  which 
make  the  square  a  b  c  d,  which,  for  a  clearer  explanation,  is  transferred  to  fig.  2,  on 
a  larger  scale,  in  the  same  position  that  the  small  one  is  in  the  volute ;  divide  the 
square  into  4  parts  by  the  line  1  3  and  2  4 ;  divide  each  of  these  lines  into  6  parts, 
and  number  them  as  is  there  represented.  To  draw  the  volute,  place  one  foot  of  the 
compasses  on  1  in  the  eye  of  the  volute,  extend  the  other  to  1  on  the  top  of  the  volute, 
and  draw  round  to  2  on  the  edge  of  the  volute ;  then  place  the  one  foot  on  2  in  the 
square  or  eye,  and  draw  the  other  round  to  3,  and  so  on  taking  each  centre  in  nu- 
merical order  till  it  is  all  drawn.  To  find  the  centre  for  the  inside  of  the  list,  set  in 
from  each  centre  one-fourth  of  the  distance  from  that  to  the  next  one,  as  is  represent- 
ed in  fig.  2 ;  for  the  width  of  the  list  at  top  take  one-sixteenth  of  the  whole  height, 
being  1  and  a  half  minutes ;  to  draw  that  part  of  the  volute  from  1  to  o,  set  the  com- 
passes at  the  bottom  of  the  square. 

Fig.  3  explains  the  manner  of  drawing  the  scotia  of  the  Attic  Base.  Divide  the 
height  of  the  scotia  into  3  parts,  at  the  distance  of  one  of  these  parts  from  the  top 
draw  the  line  a  h  c,  on  which  />  and  c  are  the  centres  for  drawing  the  scotia,  and  the 
line  o  6  c  is  the  limit  of  each  quarter. 

*  Ionic,  from  Ion,  the  Son  of  Xuthus,  who,  building  a  Temple  to  Diana,  invented  this  Order.  The  Ancients 
generally  made  their  Capitals  in  this  (~)rder  flat,  and  to  face  only  one  way ;  but,  the  angular  Capital  being 
thought  by  many  more  convenient,  I  have  here  given  that. 


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THE   YOUNG  CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  13 

Fig.  4  is  the  Ionic  Modillion  ;  to  draw  which  divide  the  bottom  or  projection  into 
six  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  &c.  two  and  a  half  of  these  divisions  up  over  a  is  the  centre  of 
from  a  lob  ;  under  2  one  and  a  half  divisions  down,  is  the  centre  of  from  h  to  c  ; 
and  at  two  is  the  centre  of  from  c  to  d ;  the  line  e  f  from  one  centre  to  the  other 
marks  the  limits  of  each  arc.  Here  I  will  take  the  liberty  of  remarking,  that  when 
circles  of  different  radii  unite,  and  are  required  to  appear  smooth  round,  the  two 
centres  and  place  of  meeting  should  always  be  on  one  line,  as  may  appear  in  the  two 
last  examples. 

Fig.  5  is  the  Ionic  Capital  on  an  enlarged  scale,  with  a  plan  by  which  a  clearer 
idea  may  be  had  of  angular  volutes. 


THE    CORINTHIAN    ORDER.* 

PLATE  11. 

The  general  proportions  of  this  Order  are,  one-fifth  of  the  entire  height  for 
the  Pedestal,  one-sixth  of  the  remainder  for  the  Entablature,  and  one-tenth  of  the 
height  of  the  Column  is  the  diameter.  The  column  diminishes  to  50  minutes  at 
its  neck ;  the  Modillions  are  1 1  and  a  half  minutes  wide,  and  35  minutes  from  cen- 
tre to  centre  of  each  ;  the  dentils  are  3  and  a  half  minutes  wide,  and  the  space 
between  each  two-thirds  of  a  dentil.  For  an  enlarged  Capital  and  Modillion,  see 
next  Plate. 


PLATE  12. 

Fig.  A  is  the  Corinthian  Capital ;  the  height  being  figured  from  the  scale  of 
minutes  is  plain  to  inspection.  To  find  the  place  for  each  leaf,  draAv  a  semicircle, 
as  a  4  6,  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  neck  of  the  Column ;  divide  the  round  of  this 
into  8  parts,  and  from  each  of  these  draw  lines  through  the  Capital ;  these  lines 
mark  the  place  of  each  stock,  or  middle  of  each  leaf.  It  may  not  be  improper  to 
remark,  that  the  inner  break  in  the  abacus  or  upper  moulding  of  the  Capital  should 
not  have  as  much  projection  as  the  outer  one,  as  at  d.    If  the  real  appearance  of  the 


*  The  following  origin  of  the  Corinthian  Order  is  given  by  Vitinu  ius  : 

'  A  marriageable  young  lady  of  Corinth  fell  ill  and  died.  After  the  interment,  her  nurse  collected  together 
sundry  ornaments  with  which  she  used  to  be  pleased;  and  putting  them  into  a  basket,  placed  it  near  her 
tomb;  and,  lest  it  should  be  injured  by  the  weather,  she  covered  it  ^\■ith  a  tile,  it  happened  the  basket  was 
placed  on  the  root  of  an  Acanthus,  which  in  the  spring  shot  forth  its  leaves ;  these  running  up  the  sides  of  the 
basket,  naturally  formed  a  kind  of  Volute,  in  the  turn  given  by  the  tile  to  the  leaves.  Happily  Calimachus, 
a  most  ingenious  Sculptor,  passing  that  way,  was  struck  with  the  beauty,  elegance,  and  novelty  of  the  basket 
surrounded  by  the  Acanthus  leaves ;  and,  according  to  this  idea  or  example,  he  afterwards  made  Columns  for 
the  Corinthiaiis,  ordaining  the  proportions  such  as  constitute  the  Corinthian  Order.' 

[Rtidiments  of  Ancient  Architecture.] 

D 


U  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

moulding  at  d  were  given,  it  would  be  very  near  a  straight  perpendicular  line  ;  but, 
as  that  would  not  look  well,  a  little  liberty  is  taken  to  improve  the  appearance. 

Fiff.  B  is  the  same  subject  shaded,  for  the  assistance  of  Students. 

Fio-.  C  is  the  Corinthian  Modillion,  the  parts  being  figured  from  the  scale  of  min- 
utes ;  fig.  D  is  the  eye  of  the  Modillion  on  an  enlarged  scale ;  the  centres  are  num- 
bered, each  centre  serving  for  one-quarter  of  a  circle,  and  these  quarters  are  num- 
bered in  the  Modillion. 


PLATE  13. 

In  this  Plate  is  represented  the  Plancers  of  the  Corinthian,  Ionic,  and  Doric 
Orders,  at  an  external  angle.  The  student  may  observe  the  Modillions  in  all  cases 
correspond  with  the  Column;  and  in  the  Doric  Order  they  are  enriched  with  drops, 
the  shape  of  which  is  represented  by  the  drops  of  the  triglyphs. 


PLATE  14. 

Of  diminishing  Columns. 


Columns  are  sometimes  diminished  from  the  bottom,  and  sometimes  the  diminish- 
ing commences  at  one-third  of  the  height  from  the  base. 

Fig.  A  represents  a  Column  with  the  lower  third-part  undiminished. 

Divide  the  upper  two-thirds  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  5,  as  at  1  2  3  4 
5 ;  a  i  at  top  is  equal  to  the  full  thickness  below  ;  set  in  on  each  side  from  a  and  b 
half  the  difference  between  the  size  of  the  Column  at  top  and  that  at  bottom,  as  a  c 
and  /)  d ;  divide  each  of  these  into  the  same  number  of  parts  that  the  upper  two- 
thirds  of  the  Column  is ;  draw  lines  from  c  and/ to  each  of  those  parts,  and  where 
these  lines  cross  the  divisions,  1  2  3  and  1,  will  be  the  points  through  which  to  draw 
the  edge  of  the  Column. 

When  Columns  are  made  of  plank  glued  up,  the  planks  nuist  each  be  diminished 
before  gluing,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  each  a  complete  Column. 

Fig.  B  is  a  representation  of  a  Column  fluted. 

Draw  a  semicircle  on  each  end  of  the  Column  ;  divide  the  round  of  this  into  12 
parts,  and  each  of  these  again  into  8  parts ;  6  of  these  go  to  a  flute,  and  2  to  a 
fillet.    Observe,  that  a  flute  will  always  be  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  Column. 

Fig.  C  is  a  fluted  Column,  shaded,  to  show  the  effect. 


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THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  15 


Door  (from  the  Saxon  dor),  tlie  gate  of  a  house,  or  the  passage  into  an  edifice, 
apartment,  &c. 

The  construction  of  doors  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  branches,  viz.  the  form- 
ation and  proportion  of  the  aperture,  or  opening,  which  in  outer  walls  belong  to 
the  mason  or  bricklayer,  and  forming  of  the  gate  or  leaf,  by  which  the  entrance  is 
to  be  secured,  together  with  its  appurtenances,  which  appertain  to  the  Carpenter's 
department. 

The  proportion  of  the  aperture  must  always  be  according  to  the  size  and  intention 
of  the  building,  and  should  be  attended  to  above  every  other  consideration  :  in  gene- 
ral, the  dimensions  may  be  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  two  for  large  doors,  and  from 
three  to  seven  in  those  of  less  size. 

Entrances  are  of  two  kinds ;  doors  and  gates. 

The  former  are  used  only  for  the  passage  of  persons  on  foot ;  the  latter  admit 
horsemen  and  carriages.  Doors  are  used  for  churches,  public  edifices,  dwelling- 
houses,  and  apartments  ;  gates  serve  as  inlets  to  cities,  fortresses,  parks,  gardens,  &c. 
Apertures  of  gates,  being  always  wide,  are  usually  arched  ;  while  the  figure  of  doors 
is  generally  a  parallelogram. 

Public  buildings,  palaces,  and  noblemen's  mansions,  where  a  great  concourse  of 
company  may  be  expected,  should  have  doors  of  much  greater  dimensions  than  those 
of  other  buildings  ;  from  six  to  twelve  feet  may  be  taken  for  the  width  of  the  outer 
entrance,  and  from  four  to  six  feet  for  those  in  the  interior :  in  private  houses,  the 
latter,  if  they  have  but  one  leaf,  should  never  be  more  than  three  feet  and  a  half  in 
breadth,  nor  less  than  that  of  the  windows.  In  all  cases  their  height  should  be  pro- 
portioned to  that  of  the  story  in  which  they  are  placed,  except  whei-e  they  are  used 
for  laving  two  apartments  into  one ;  in  which  case  they  will  be  of  a  height  less  than 
double  their  width. 

Vitruvius,  in  his  fourth  book,  has  prescribed  rules  for  Attic,  Ionic,  and  Doric  doors, 
all  of  which  have  their  apertures  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top ;  examples  of 
this  shape  may  be  seen  in  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  and 
the  temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli,  and  in  other  Greek  and  Roman  remains.  These  doors 
possess  the  advantage  of  shutting  themselves,  to  which  tiiey  probably  owe  their  in- 
vention ;  and  they  may  be  conveniently  adopted  in  modern  houses,  as  they  rise  in 
opening  and  will  clear  a  carpet,  though,  when  shut,  they  go  close  down  upon  the 
floor. 

The  principal  entrance  to  a  building  of  any  magnitude  should  be  in  the  centre,  as 
productive  of  the  greater  symmetry  of  appearance,  and  as  communicating  more 
readily  with  the  various  apartments  of  the  interior.  In  the  principal  rooms,  the  door 
should  be  two  feet,  at  least,  from  the  return  of  the  wall,  to  admit  of  furniture  being 
placed  close  up  in  the  corner. 

The  lintels  of  exterior  doors  should  always  range  with  those  of  the  windows. 
Apertures  placed  in  blank  arcades,  are  usually  placed  at  the  same  height  as  the 
springing  of  the  arches:  when  they  have  dressings,  the  head  of  the  architrave,  or 
cornice,  is  generally  on  the  level  of  the  impost. 


10  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

The  decorations  of  a  doorway  commonly  consist  either  of  an  architrave  sur- 
rounding it,  with  or  without  a  cornice,  or  with  a  complete  entablature ;  consoles  are 
sometimes  introduced,  Hanking  the  architrave  jambs,  and  supporting  the  ends  of  the 
cornice.  When  the  architrave  jambs  arc  flanked  with  pilasters,  whether  of  the  orders, 
or  of  some  emblematical  form,  the  projections  of  their  bases  and  capitals  are  always 
less  than  those  of  the  surrounding-  architrave,  and  the  architrave  over  the  capitals 
is  similar  to  that  over  the  door  itself.  Doors  are  sometimes  decorated  with  one  of 
the  five  orders,  and,  in  very  considerable  buildings,  the  entrance  is  adorned  with  a 
Portico,  so  as  to  resemble  an  ancient  Grecian  temple.  In  embellishing  the  piers  of 
gates,  or  outer  doors,  it  should  be  remembered,  as  a  general  rule,  that  as  the  pier  is 
itself  only  an  inferior  building,  it  should  never  be  richer  than  the  front  of  the  liou?e. 
As,  where  the  front  of  the  latter  is  ornamented  with  Doric  columns,  the  Ionic  should 
not  be  found  in  the  piers ;  and  it  would  be  better  to  omit  columns  altogether,  than 
use  the  Tuscan  order  for  piers  in  any  case.  If  the  Ionic  or  Corinthian  orders  be 
used  in  the  front  of  the  house,  the  Doric  or  Ionic  may  be  with  propriety  introduced 
in  the  piers.  Niches  are  almost  always  inti'oduced  into  piers,  for  which  reason  the 
columns  do  better  on  pedestals,  because  the  continued  mortising  from  their  cap 
forms  an  agreeable  ornament  under  the  niche. 

The  wooden  closure  by  which  the  apertures  are  opened  or  closed,  come  within  the 
province  of  the  Carpenter ;  these  are  properly  the  doors,  and  arc  either  framed,  bat- 
tened, or  ledged,  as  hereafter  described.  In  ordinary  and  even  in  good  houses,  frequent- 
ly the  doors  are  of  pine ;  in  first-rate  mansions  they  are  often  of  mahogany,  solid  or 
veneered,  and  sometimes  of  wainscot,  especially  where  the  building  is  of  the  antique 
style.  Apartments  reserved  for  the  reception  of  money,  plate,  jewels,  &c.  are  usu- 
ally secured  with  iron  doors ;  and  in  the  descriptions  of  ancient  temples,  we  read  of 
doors  of  ivory,  brass,  silver,  and  gold. 

Batten  doors,  though  formerly  much  in  use,  are  now  confined  to  buildings  in  the 
pointed  style  of  architecture.  They  consist  of  boards  glued  together  to  the  size  of 
the  aperture,  with  styles,  rails,  and  munnions,  made  of  battens  nailed  upon  them,  so 
as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  frame  door.  This  may  be  done,  either  on  the  one  or 
both  sides;  and  the  door  is  accordingly  denominated  single  or  double  battened.  The 
vertical  joints  should  be  hid  by  the  munnions  of  the  framing,  and  the  latter,  instead 
of  being  glued,  should  be  bolted  through  to  a  framing  behind,  which  will  make  them 
very  strong.  The  large  gates  and  doors  of  ancient  British  edifices  are  thus  con- 
structed. The  practice  of  imitating  the  framing  of  Grecian  and  Roman  doors,  is 
not,  however,  to  be  recommended  in  modern  times,  especially  if  no  bolts  be  used ; 
for  the  stuff,  though  never  so  well  seasoned,  will  be  subject  to  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  shrink  or  swell  as  the  air  is  dry  or  damp.  It  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  remark  that  this  evil  will  be  enhanced  in  proportion  as  the  wood  is  less  season- 
ed. Framed  doors,  which  are  cither  single,  folding,  double,  or  double  margin,  are 
employed  in  all  description  of  building,  and  consist  of  styles,  rails,  panels,  and  in 
most  cases,  of  munnions  also.  The  framing  includes  all  parts  but  the  panels,  and  is 
held  together  with  mortises  and  tenons.  The  styles  are  the  vertical  parts  of  the  fram- 
ing at  the  sides.  The  rails  are  the  horizontal  pieces  into  the  styles.  Munnions  are  parts 
of  the  framing  tenoned  into  rails.  The  panels  fill  up  the  whole  left  in  putting  the 
framing  together;  and  are  let  into  grooves  cut  in  the  internal  edges  of  the  styles, 
rails,  and  munnions.    Doors  are  generally  framed  into  rectangular  compartments : 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S    ASSISTANT.  17 

though  other  forms,  as  circles,  ellipses,  lozenges,  &c.  may  be  adopted,  according  to 
the  will  of  the  proprietor,  or  taste  of  the  builder.  Framed  doors  are  either  square 
or  moulded ;  the  former  are  used  only  in  common  houses.  Mouldings  are  of  various 
forms,  some  confined  within  the  framing,  and  others  projecting  beyond  it.  The 
mouldings  and  form  of  the  panels  of  the  door,  generally  regulate  those  of  the  win- 
dow-shutters. Folding  doors,  or  doors  of  communication,  are  made  in  two  breadths 
and  have  a  pair  of  styles  to  each  leaf. 

Double-doors  are  contrived  to  close  against  each  other  in  opposite  directions,  the 
one  opening  outwards,  and  the  other  going  inwards,  in  order  to  keep  the  apartments 
warm :  the  inner  door  being  generally  covered  with  green  baize. 

Double-margin  doors,  are  single  doors,  with  a  broad  piece  running  vertically  down 
the  middle,  called  the  staff-style,  imitating  the  two  internal  styles  of  folding  doors 
when  shut. 

Whatever  kind  of  door  be  adopted,  it  should,  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  be  used 
in  all  the  apartments  of  the  same  story. 

Architrave  of  a  door,  a  collection  of  members  surrounding  the  aperture  of  a  sec- 
tion similar  to  the  architrave  of  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Roman  Orders.  The 
head  or  lintel  is  called  the  traverse,  and  the  sides  the  jambs.  Vitruvius  calls  the 
jambs  the  antepagmenta,  and  the  head  or  traverse  the  supercilium.  In  the  remains 
of  the  edifices  at  Balbec  and  Palmyra,  and  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro, 
the  architrave  jambs  are  often  flanked  with  consoles,  which  gives  an  apparent  sup- 
port to  the  cornice,  and  the  cornice  frequently  rests  upon  the  traverse,  without  the 
intervention  of  frieze ;  but  the  flank  pilaster  under  the  consoles  is  scarcely  to  be 
met  with  among  the  ancient  ruins,  though  practised  by  the  modern  Italians,  and 
represented  in  their  works.  This  is  however  an  improvement,  as  it  diminishes  the 
apparent  weight  of  the  top,  by  spreading  out  the  lower  part.  The  proportion  of  the 
architrave  to  the  aperture,  in  ancient  edifices,  is  very  various :  the  usual  proportion 
given  by  the  moderns,  is  from  one-seventh  to  one-sixth  part  of  the  opening.  When 
the  architrave  jambs  are  flanked  with  pilasters  and  consoles,  the  breadth  may  be  one- 
seventh  of  that  aperture,  and  the  breadth  of  the  pilaster  two  thirds  of  that  of  the 
architrave ;  but  when  it  is  unaccompanied  with  these  ornaments,  it  ought  not  to  be 
less  than  the  sixth  part  of  the  aperture. 

In  the  ruins  of  Roman  and  Grecian  buildings,  the  architrave  rests  upon  the  flooi-, 
and  has  no  flanking  consoles :  but  in  the  ruins  of  Balbec  they  arc  supported  by 
phnths. 

When  there  is  too  much  surface  of  naked  wall  on  each  side  of  the  architrave 
jambs,  the  sides  of  the  architrave  may  be  flanked  with  pilasters,  and  consoles,  in 
order  to  reduce  the  naked,  and  proportion  it  to  the  dressing  of  the  front.  The  dress- 
ing of  an  aperture  may  be  heightened  by  adding  a  cornice,  or  a  cornice  and  frieze, 
as  the  space  above  will  admit :  and  if  the  space  above  requires  further  diminution, 
the  altitude  of  the  dressing  may  be  still  further  increased,  by  surmounting  the 
cornice  with  a  pediment. 

When  the  material  of  the  architrave  is  stone,  the  jambs  are  either  built  in  heights 
corresponding  to  the  course  of  the  naked  of  the  wall,  or  if  stone  can  be  procured 
each  jamb  is  made  of  one  entire  piece,  or  sometimes  in  two  or  three,  according  to 
the  difficulty  of  raising  them  from  the  quarry. 

When  they  are  coursed  with  the  work,  every  alternate  stone  should  be  a   bond- 

E 


18  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

stone,  and,  if  the  jambs  are  in  one  height,  or  not  couri^cd,  every  alternate  stone 
in  the  altitude  of  ti'.e  naked,  adjoining  each  architrave  jamb,  should  be  a  bond-stone : 
the  fewer  pieces  the  architrave  jamb  consists  of,  the  more  beautiful  will  the  work 
appear ;  therefore  one  is  preferable  to  several. 

In  the  arcades  of  ancient  buildings,  the  jambs  are  seldom  or  never  moulded  as  an 
architrave,  but  the  arch  is  frequently  ornamented  with  members  of  an  architrave 
section  :  these  members  are  called  the  archivolt,  which  always  rests  upon  imposts. 
The  imposts  project  in  most  cases  from  the  naked  of  the  wall,  and  in  a  few  cases 
from  the  capital  of  pilasters  upon  the  jambs. 

Architrave  in  Carpentry,  is  one  constructed  of  wood.  Architraves  may  be  worked 
out  of  a  solid  piece  of  wood  ;  but  this,  however,  would  be  attended  with  a  waste  of 
both  stuff  and  time.  The  best  method  is  to  glue  it  up  in  two  or  more  longitudinal 
pieces,  as  may  be  judged  proper  for  the  combination  of  its  parts. 

Jib-doors  are  used  to  preserve  the  uniformity  of  a  room,  or  to  save  the  expense  of 
a  corresponding  door. 

Doors  ought  to  be  made  of  clear  good  stuff,  firmly  put  together,  the  mitres  or 
scribings  brought  together  with  the  greatest  exactness,  and  the  whole  of  their  sur- 
faces perfectly  smooth,  particularly  those  made  for  the  best  apartments  of  good 
houses.  In  order  to  effect  this,  the  whole  of  the  work  ought  to  be  set  out  and  tried 
up  with  particular  care ;  saws  and  other  tools  should  be  in  good  order ;  the  mortis- 
ing, tenoning,  plowing,  and  sticking  of  the  mouldings,  ought  to  be  correctly  to  the 
gauge  hues ;  these  being  strictly  attemled  to,  the  work  will  of  necessity,  when  put 
together,  close  with  certainty ;  but  if  otherwise,  the  workman  nmst  expect  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  in  paring  the  different  parts  before  the  work  can  be  made  to  appear 
in  any  degree  passable:  this  will  also  occasion  a  want  of  firmness  in  the  work,  par- 
ticularly if  the  tenons  and  mortises  are  obliged  to  be  pared. 

In  bead  and  flush  doors,  the  best  way  is  to  mitre  the  work  square,  afterwards  put 
in  the  panels,  and  smooth  the  whole  off  together,  then  marking  the  panels  at  the 
parts  of  the  priming,  they  agree  to  take  the  door  to  pieces,  and  work  the  beads  on 
the  styles,  rails,  and  mountings.  If  the  doors  are  double  margin,  that  is  represent- 
ing a  pair  of  folding  doors,  the  staff  style,  which  imitates  the  meeting-styles,  must 
be  entered  to  the  top  and  bottom  rails  of  the  door,  by  forking  the  ends  into  notches 
cut  in  the  top  and  bottom  rails.  We  shall  here  make  a  few  observations  upon,  and 
give  some  rules  for,  hanging  of  doors,  so  as  to  clear  the  ground  or  carpet. 

Firat.  Raise  the  floor  under  the  door  as  much  as  may  be  necessary,  according 
to  the  thickness  of  the  carpet,  &c. 

Secondly.  Make  the  knuckle  of  the  bottom  hinge  to  project  beyond  the  perpen- 
dicular of  the  top  hinge  about  the  one-eighth  of  an  inch  :  this  will  throw  the  door  off 
the  floor. 

Note.  The  centre  of  the  top  hinge  must  project  a  little  beyond  the  surface  of  the 
door,  if  the  hinge  is  let  equally  into  the  door  and  into  the  jamb ;  otherwise,  if  the 
centre  lie  in  the  surface  of  the  door,  it  ought  to  be  placed  at  the  very  top,  which  is 
seldom  done,  except  when  hung  with  centres. 

Thirdly.  Fix  the  jamb,  on  which  the  door  hangs,  out  of  the  plumb  line,  so  that 
the  top  of  the  jamb  may  incline  to  the  opposite  jamb  about  one-eighth  part  of  an  inch: 
this  will  contribute  to  the  effect  of  clearing  the  door  from  the  floor. 


DOOR. 
PLATE  15. 


Desu/ijeu  f:mvir>:  iy  JJjai'Uuiid. 


Jnt'?tfs 


Srale. 


J^eer 


DOOK. 
PLATE  Id. 


.v/  y  dratrn-  h^  J.Bi^i&uul. 


En^nwcd  h  Jyktger. 


Scale. 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  19 

Fourthly.  Make  the  door,  when  shut,  to  project  at  the  bottom  towards  the  inside 
of  the  room,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  which  may  be  effected  by  giving  the  rebate 
the  quantity  of  inchnation  requisite. 

Note.  Although  any  of  the  above  methods,  properly  applied,  will  make  a  door 
swing  sufficiently  clear  of  the  floor,  yet  as  each  one  separately  will  require  to  be 
done  in  so  great  a  degree  as  to  offend  the  eye,  I  do  not  recommend  if  in  nice  work, 
but  would  rather  advise  a  combination  of  them  all,  to  be  used  thus : 

Raise  the  floor  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  under  the  door ;  make  the  jamb  on 
which  the  door  hangs  incline  to  the  opposite  jamb  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch ; 
make  each  rebate  that  stops  the  door  project  at  the  bottom  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to 
that  side  of  the  room  on  which  the  door  opens.  Now  these  several  methods  practised 
in  the  above  small  degrees,  which  will  not  bte  perceptible,  will  throw  the  door  suffi- 
ciently out  of  the  level,  when  opened  to  a  square  ;  that  is,  it  will  be  at  least  half  an 
inch,  when  the  height  of  the  door  is  double  its  width. 

Fifthly.  An  invention  has  been  introduced  called  rising  hinges,  which  are  made 
of  a  spiral  groove  winding  round  the  knuckle ;  this  construction  of  hinge  requires 
that  the  door  should  be  bevelled  at  the  top  next  to  the  ledge  or  door-catch,  as  much 
as  the  hinge  rises  in  one  quarter  of  its  revolution. 

Sixthly.  This  may  also  be  effected  by  adopting  a  door  in  the  form  of  the  antique 
doors ;  that  is,  the  bottom  to  be  wider  than  the  top,  the  jambs  having  the  same  incli- 
nation. 


PLATE  15. 


A  design  for  a  single  door,  in  proportion  with  a  house  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
three  feet  front,  in  the  modern  style  of  finish.  The  proportions  of  its  several  parts 
can  be  ascertained  by  referring  to  the  annexed  scale  of  feet  and  inches. 


PLATE  16. 

A  design  for  an  external  folding  door,  calculated  for  a  double  house,  drawn  to  a 
scale  of  inches  and  feet. 


PLATE  17. 


Two  designs  for  the  dressings  of  internal  doors.  The  Fig.  1  is  adapted  for  the 
parlor  and  drawing-room  floors;  and  the  example  Fig.  2  most  appropriate  for  the 
chamber  rooms.  The  doors  may  be  arranged  with  three,  four,  or  five  panels,  to  corre- 
spond with  the  bold  or  light  style  of  its  adjoining  features ;  and  the  folding  doors  of 
the  same  room  would  look  better  to  be  finished  with  the  additional  height  of  a  panel 
ranged  with  those  of  the  single  doors. 


20  THE    YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

PLATE  18,  19. 

Ten  designs  for  the  pilasters  of  parlor  and  chamber  doors,  drawn  full  size. 


PLATE  20. 

Five  designs  for  the  architraves  of  internal  and  external  doors,  showing  their  pro- 
files, full  size. 


PLATE  21. 


In  this  Plate  are  given  the  lines  of  a  pitch  pediment  frontispiece.  In  this  the 
column  is  made  ten  diameters  in  height.  This  is  on  a  supposition  that  the  door  is 
for  a  town  house  with  a  narrow  front ;  in  which  case  the  true  proportion  of  the 
Orders  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  regard  had  to  the  general  proportion  of  the  build- 
ing ;  but  in  country  houses,  where  the  front  may  be  well  proportioned,  the  nearer 
we  adhere  to  the  Orders,  the  better  will  be  the  appearance  in  general.  In  fixing 
on  the  size  of  a  door  for  the  front  of  a  house,  it  is  better  to  make  it  rather  too 
large  than  too  small,  as  few  things  will  make  a  house  look  meaner,  than  a  contract- 
ed front  door ;  and,  where  it  will  admit  of  it,  the  door  should  be  as  wide  as  half  its 
height. 


PLATE  22. 


In  this  Plate,  the  foregoing  subject  is  shaded.  I  will  here  observe,  that  the  light 
should  always  come  from  the  left  side,  and  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  or  on  a 
mitre  both  horizontally  and  vertically,  by  which  the  shadows  of  projecting  moulding, 
&c.  will  be  always  equal  to  their  projections.  This  will  be  better  understood,  by 
examining  the  Plate. 

As  in  geometrical  drawings,  the  relief  or  projection  of  the  object  can  only  be  shown 
by  the  shading,  the  Student  should  make  it  his  business  to  understand  the  efiects  of 
light  and  shade.  In  those  parts  that  stand  forward,  or  project,  the  shade  should  be 
strong,  and  the  part  receiving  the  light  should  be  bright ;  and,  as  the  distance  in- 
creases, both  lights  and  shades  should  be  weaker.  All  moulding,  whether  swelling 
or  coving,  will  have  both  a  stronger  light  and  shade,  than  plane  surfaces  exposed  to 
an  equal  degree  of  light ;  and  all  surfaces  on  the  same  plane,  not  in  a  shadow,  should 
have  the  same  tint  or  degree  of  shade. 


DOOK. 

PLATE  17. 

Fitj.l. 


Fill.  :•'. 


Siiiiife 


Ill «iii|;;::|  ■'"; " 


J      *:i4iSlKltJOUIf 


Jjcstonai'i  dr^u*i  A.     'f^^mJoTu^. 


DO  OK. 
PLATE  18. 


Fill.  o. 


Jy:Sh/nr;t    ^i' ^it/ii'/l   by  JMuvU.ifUl  . 


Fi<j.  A 


nooK . 


^V/.  7. 


Iw.  8. 


ncsumd  J-arcofn  br  JBa^iZaiiJ 


1)0(»K. 

PLATE  20. 


Fi,/.  i>. 


Fid-  J. 


Fi,!.  4. 


Fill.  5. 


Tn-si{"u'd  it  drawn  by  ■/^oyiiotui. 


PL. ATE  21. 


«      .<-      6       3       ,. 

I   . I 


JV-  /  L  !■: 


PLATK  :>■,>. 


OltiMI.    M 


ii:A«m/i> 


PLATE  ■■>::. 


S  C.I  I.  K 


FLATE  ^4. 


jr.  linnijj  /(. 


THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  21 

PLATE  23. 

In  this  Plate  is  given  a  flat  pediment  frontispiece.  The  observations  made  on  the 
preceding  example,  with  respect  to  general  proportions,  Mill  apply  to  this. 

After  tiie  Student  lias  fixed  on  the  size  of  his  door,  he  will  draw  the  arch,  and 
divide  the  half-round  of  that  into  six  parts ;  one  of  which  is  the  width  of  the  key 
at  bottom,  and  two  of  them  will  be  its  height,  which  is  also  the  top  of  the  col- 
umns. He  may  then  find  the  diameter,  and  make  a  scale  for  proportioning  the 
mouldings. 


PLATE  24, 

Is  the  foregoing,  shaded. 


Wr^ 


Windows  (from  the  Danish  vindue,  or  the  Welsh  wynt-dor,  a  passage  for  the 
wind),  those  apertures  in  walls  through  which  light  is  transmitted  to  the  interior  of 
the  building.  Windows  are  generally  of  a  rectangular  form,  the  sides  or  jambs  being 
vertical,  and  the  bottom  and  lintel  horizontal.  Semicircular  windows  have  a  very  ele- 
gant effect,  particularly  in  circular  buildings,  as  was  generally  the  practice  of  the  Ro- 
mans ;  but  those  that  are  finished  with  segments,  or  semi-ellipses,  are  not  so  beautiful ; 
and  much  less  so  are  such  as  are  constructed  of  entire  circles  or  ellipses,  for  which 
few  or  no  precedents  are  to  be  found  in  the  buildings  of  the  ancients.  Windows  must 
be  proportioned  in  height  and  width  to  the  principal  rooms.  The  dressings  of  win- 
dows are  the  sill,  and  the  insisting  architrave,  surrounding  the  upper  part,  crowned 
by  a  cornice  and  frieze.  The  breadth  of  the  architrave  may  be  one-sixth  of  that  of 
the  aperture ;  the  frieze  the  same ;  the  height  of  the  cornice  will  depend  upon  the 
number  of  mouldings ;  if  very  few,  it  may  be  of  less  height  than  the  cornice,  Win- 
dows should  be  so  placed  with  respect  to  the  principal  rooms,  or  dining  and  drawing 
rooms,  as  to  be  equally  distant  from  each  end  of  the  apartment,  and  equidistantly 
distributed  in  the  principal  front,  of  one  size,  with  their  edges  or  sides  in  the  same 
vertical  lines.  This  adjustment  will  frequently  be  attended  with  difficulties ;  and  to 
accommodate  the  principle,  an  alteration  of  the  proportions,  in  a  small  degree,  will 
sometimes  be  necessary.  In  houses  of  the  middle  class,  where  economy  is  an  equal 
consideration  with  elegance  or  beauty,  the  windows  frequently  reach  as  high  as  the 
cornice,  or  even  so  high  as  to  cut  the  cornice,  wholly,  or  in  part ;  a  mutilation  that 
destroys  the  beauty  of  the  finishing.  In  such  cases,  it  would  be  better  to  have  more 
lofty  stories  or  lower  windows.  In  large  edifices,  where  proportions  are  considered, 
the  spaces  above  the  windows  are  more  ample,  and  allow  a  more  elegant  finish,  with 
a  greater  repose  for  the  eye. 

F 


22  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Windows  ought  to  be  made  vertically  one  above  the  other,  and  not  too  near  the 
angles  of  the  building ;  and  in  large  edifices  where  the  m  alls  are  thick,  their  jambs 
ought  to  be  splayed  or  bevelled,  for  a  more  full  distril)ution  of  light.  Lofty  w  indows, 
descending  to  the  floor,  or  nearly  so,  with  a  projecting  balcony  in  front  of  the  build- 
ing, defended  by  a  railing  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  are  both  healthy  and  agreeable. 

Sky-lisJits,  in  cold  climates  like  ours,  are  productive  of  many  inconveniences,  as 
they  admit  of  cold  air,  damps,  rain,  and  snow,  and  thereby  waste  the  heat  generated 
in  the  house.  They  ought  therefore  never  to  be  admitted,  except  for  stairs  and  halls : 
v.hen  this  admission  is  necessary,  their  apertures  should  increase  in  dimensions,  so 
as  not  to  hinder  the  passage  of  the  rays. 

Sash  (from  the  French  chassis,  a  frame)  a  chequered  frame  for  holding  the  squares 
of  glass  or  windows,  and  so  formed  as  to  be  let  up  and  down  by  means  of  pulle3's. 

Sashes  are  either  single  or  double  hung. 

Sash-Frame,  the  wooden  frame  in  which  the  sas-hes  are  fitted  for  the  convenience 
of  sliding  up  or  down,  or  side-ways,  as  the  nature  of  the  apartment  to  be  lighted  may 
require.  When  one  or  both  sashes  are  to  be  moved  vertically,  they  are  commonly 
equipoised  by  weights ;  and  the  weights  are  made  to  run  in  vertical  trunk?,  or  cases, 
formed  in  the  sides  of  the  frames,  which  are  therefore  said  to  be  cased ;  but  when 
the  sides  are  not  made  hollow  for  weights,  the  frame  is  said  to  be  solid.  In  a  sash- 
frame,  the  under  side  of  the  head  is  most  commonly  disposed  in  the  same  surface  as 
the  soffit,  or  intrados,  of  the  stone  or  brick  head  of  the  window  on  the  outside  ;  con- 
sequently, it  partakes  of  the  shape  of  the  head  of  the  window,  whether  straight  or 
circular.  In  a  cased  sash-frame,  each  case  consists  of  four  pieces ;  the  inside  piece, 
on  each  side,  or  that  next  the  aperture,  is  most  commonly  disposed  in  the  same  plane 
with  the  jamb  of  the  stone,  or  side  of  the  aperture,  on  the  outside,  the  tw  o  sides 
forming  parallel :  these  two  pieces  are  called  Pu/lei/-Picces,  from  their  containing 
pulleys,  over  which  the  ropes  pass,  by  which  the  sashes  and  weights  are  suspended.  The 
other  three  parts  of  each  trunk  are  called  linings  ;  that  parallel  to  the  pulley-piece, 
and  next  to  the  jamb,  on  either  side,  is  called  the  back  lining;  the  one  next  the  out- 
side, and  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  wall,  is  the  outside  lining  ;  and  the  remaining  one, 
next  to  the  inside  of  the  room,  is  denominated  the  inside  lining.  The  best  made 
sash-frames  have  the  pulley-pieces  tongued  into  the  outside  and  inside  linings  :  the 
back  lining  is  generally  tongued  into  the  outside,  and  nailed  to  the  edge  of  the  inside 
lining :  on  each  pulley-piece  two  channels,  of  equal  breadth,  for  the  edges  of  the 
sashes  to  run  in,  are  formed  by  nailing  a  slip  of  wood  round  the  inner  margin  of  the 
pulley-piece,  and  suflering  the  outside  lining  to  project  within  it;  between  which  a 
narrow  slip  is  inserted  in  a  groove,  left  in  the  middle  of  the  intervening  space.  As 
the  edge  of  this  slip  is  generally  rounded,  it  is  called  the  parting  bead  ;  and  the  inner 
slip,  for  the  same  reason,  is  termed  the  inside  bead;  while  the  edge  of  the  outer 
lining  is  called  the  outside  head.  Within  the  case,  there  is  also  a  vertical  slip,  sus- 
pended from  the  head,  and  passing  longitudinally  through  the  middle  of  the  hollow 
space,  for  separating  the  two  weights,  which  is  therefore  called  the  parting  slip.  The 
head,  sill,  and  inside  linings,  have  generally  each  a  groove  next  to  the  inside  of  the 
room  ;  the  groove  in  the  head  and  sill  is  commonly  three-eighths  of  an  inch  from  the 
edge  next  to  the  opening ;  that  in  the  head  is  for  inserting  the  edge  of  the  soffit,  and 
that  in  the  sill  for  receiving  the  edge  of  the  capping  bead,  upon  the  upper  edge  of 
the  back.    The  grooves,  in  the  inside  lining,  are  for  the  edges  of  the  back  lining  of 


THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  23 

the  boxing  ;  the  distance  of  these  grooves  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  inside  Hning, 
depends  upon  the  depth  of  the  boxing  and  the  distance  of  each  line  of  hinges  from 
the  inner  edge  of  the  inside  hning,  or  of  that  next  to  the  opening.  The  hne  of 
hinges  is  generally  about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  inside 
lining ;  so  that  the  shutters,  soffit,  and  capping  bead,  may  have  tiieir  terminating 
edges  with  the  sash-frame  of  the  same  margin  all  round ;  that  is,  at  the  same  dis- 
tance as  the  inner  edge  of  the  sash-frame :  this,  however,  is  not  positively  neces- 
sary ;  but  may  be  varied  at  the  discretion  of  the  architect,  or  workman. 

The  line  of  hinges  being  determined,  the  depth  of  the  boxing  is  found  by  adding 
to  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  that  of  the  inside  finishing,  whether  of  plaster  alone,  or 
of  lath  and  plaster  (the  former  requiring  about  an  inch,  and  the  latter  two  and  a 
quarter  inches)  ;  and  subtracting  from  the  sum,  the  thickness  of  the  sash-frame,  and 
its  distance  from  the  outside  of  the  wall ;  then,  if  the  remainder  be  equal  to,  or  exceed 
half  the  distance  of  the  hinge-line,  such  half  distance  is  the  breadth  of  both  the  box- 
ing and  the  shutter:  it  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  the  outer  edge  of  the 
shutter  must  not  be  rebated,  as  that  would  prevent  the  edges  of  the  lathing  coming 
close  to  the  architrave,  or  margin  style,  which  forms  the  side  of  the  boxing,  opposite 
to  the  inner  lining  of  the  sash-frame,  when  each  shutter  consists  of  one  piece  only ; 
to  remedy  this,  each  shutter  must  consist  of  two  folds,  viz.  a  front  part,  and  back 
flap ;  and  the  breadth  of  the  boxing  must  be  contracted,  either  by  introducing  a 
margin  style  at  the  edge  of  each  boxing,  or,  if  one  was  necessary  before,  by  making 
it  broader:  then  the  thickness  of  the  two  folds  will  be  the  neat  distance  of  the 
groove  from  the  line  of  hinges.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  remainder  before  men- 
tioned be  less  than  the  half  distance  of  the  hinsfe  lines,  it  is  the  breadth  of  the  boxing : 
divide  the  half  distance  between  the  hinge  lines,  by  the  breadth  of  the  boxing,  and 
the  quotient  will  give  the  number  of  folds  ;  and  if  there  be  a  remainder,  there  must 
be  one  fold  more  than  is  shown  by  the  quotient. 

The  aggregate,  or  sum  of  all  the  folds,  is  the  neat  depth  of  the  boxing:  but,  in 
order  to  make  the  folds  clear  each  other,  and  the  back  of  the  boxing,  add  the 
eighth  or  tenth  part  of  an  inch  for  each  fold.  Thus,  suppose  the  wall  to  be  of 
eighteen-inch  brick-work,  and  the  finishing,  within,  to  be  lath  and  plaster ;  suppose, 
also,  the  breadth  of  the  window  to  be  four  feet,  the  sash-frame  six  inches  thick, 
and  its  distance  from  the  wall  four  inches :  then  20i  inches  is  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  and  finishing ;  the  thickness  of  the  sash-frame,  and  its  distance  fi'om  the  face  of 
the  wall,  are  together  10  inches:  this,  taken  from  20]  inches,  gives  lOj  inches  for 
a  remainder,  which  is  the  breadth  both  of  the  boxing  and  of  the  shutter,  because 
lOf  inches  are  less  than  24  inches,  the  half  distance  between  the  lines  of  hinges: 
IOt  is  contained  twice  in  24  inches,  with  a  remainder ;  there  are,  therefore,  three 
folds,  viz.  a  front  fold  and  two  back  flaps :  suppose  the  front  fold  to  be  lA  inch 
thick,  each  back  1  j  inch  thick  ;  then  li  +  li  +  1|  =  4  inched  ;  and  because  there  are 
three  folds,  add  3-10  of  an  inch  more,  and  the  depth  of  the  boxing  v.ill  be  4J  inches. 


24  THE    YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

PLATE  25. 

A  design  for  a  dormer  window. 


PLATE  26. 

A  desiorn  for  a  single  window  with  its  external  shutters,  showing  the  manner  of 
finishing  the  panels,  &c.  on  both  sides. 


PLATE  27. 

Five  designs  for  sash  window  bars,  full  size : — 
Fig.  1.  Gothic  astragal  and  hollow  bar. 
Fig.  2.  Simple  metal  bar,  for  shop  fronts. 
Fig.  3.  Quirked  astragal  and  hollow  bar. 
Fig.  4.  Cima  recta  and  square  bar. 
Fig.  5.  Quarter  round  and  square  bar. 
Fig.  6.  Section  of  the  meeting  bar,  with  a  small  proportion  of  the  style  fixed 

to  each. 
Fig.  7,  shows  the  method  of  joining  the  intersecting  bars,  with  the  method  of 

doweling  them  together. 
Fig.  8,  the  elevation  of  the  intersection,  showing  a  part  of  each  branch  or  bar. 


PLATE  28. 

A  design  for  a  Venetian  window :  the  panel  and  pilaster  represented  in  the  lower 
front,  show  the  interior  finish,  and  are  of  course  omitted  on  the  external  side. 


PLATE  29, 

Is  a  dormer  window.  The  circular  part  of  the  sash  is  Gothic ;  in  drawing  which, 
the  compasses  should  be  kept  at  the  same  extent  as  in  drawing  the  arch,  and  the 
centre  carried  out  on  the  top  of  the  impost.  If  fluting  or  dentils  are  used  for  dor- 
mers, they  should  be  larger  in  their  proportions  than  in  common  work ;  and  the  pitch 
of  the  pediment  may  be  rather  steeper  than  in  frontispieces,  as  the  height  will  take 
otr  something  from  the  pitch. 


window: 


PLATE  25. 


Design^.  ^  ^atrn  kjJ.3cJ>Uand. 


EnffTcofedfy  JYiiMj' 


WINDOW 


I'LATE  '*(•». 


Si;Utf. 


n</.  1. 


WINDOW. 
PLATE  ?7. 


Fill.  1'. 


Fin  .■!. 


Fui.  -/. 


Fiy.  5. 

iiTP 
I 


^__.  -.-■.                            ; 

J^</.  c>. 


Fit/.   7. 


Fit/,  o. 


J)csigrud  jddrGMn-  iy  J.Bay i/tnu^ 


4 


WINDOW. 


PLATE  'J6'. 


t'>.f'-.iv.\i  /y  J.yca^e>- 


Scale. 


-PLATE  J'). 


■Sett/v    if'-Z^rrt 


o  /:■    ./ffrAi^ 


-''''III'"!      T""! 1 


riATE  ,{0. 


--vp 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  26 


PLATE  30, 

Is  a  Venetian  window  of  the  Ionic  order.  In  giving  a  design  for  a  window  of  this 
kind,  the  size  of  the  glass  should  be  made  to  correspond  with  the  entablature,  so 
that  it  will  be  equal  in  height  to  one  or  two  lights ;  and  the  sashes  in  the  side- 
window,  to  range  with  the  middle  one. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


The  four  Orders  of  Architecture  have  been  selected  from  such  of  the  remains  of 
ancient  buildings,  as  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  beautiful ;  and  Palladio  has  been 
generally  allowed  to  have  been  the  best  judge  among  the  moderns,  who  have  given 
the  proportions  of  the  remains  of  Antiquity.  The  proportions  in  this  book  are 
pretty  nearly  the  same  as  his.  The  differences  are  principally  these :  There  being 
no  remains  of  Antiquity  in  the  Tuscan  Order  with  an  entablature,  and  Palladio 
having  given  a  very  poor  one ;  succeeding  Moderns  have  given  that  Order  an  entabla- 
ture near  the  proportion  of  the  others,  which  I  have  adopted.  The  Doric  Order  has 
no  example  of  a  Pedestal  among  the  Ancients ;  and  in  the  most  admired  buildings 
of  Antiquity,  in  that  Order,  the  Columns  have  no  base;  and  I  believe  there  is  no 
example  remaining  of  the  Ionic  Order  having  modillions,  but  dentils  only  ;  though,  of 
late,  modillions  have  been  as  frequently  applied  as  dentils.  In  the  foregoing 
examples,  I  have  given  to  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  Order  one-fifth  of  the  height,  exclusive 
of  the  Pedestal,  for  the  entablature ;  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  each  have  one-sixth. 
In  situations  where  there  are  one  or  more  Orders  over  another,  this  proportion  in 
the  upper  should  be  altered ;  the  richer  Order  always  being  uppermost.  The  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  may  then  have  one-fifth,  for  the  entablature.  These  proportions  are 
all  for  small  buildings ;  but  if  the  buildings  are  large,  exceeding  40  feet  in  height,  the 
entablature  should  increase  proportionally.  If  one  Order  only  is  used,  the  Tuscan 
and  Doric  may  have  one-fourth  ;  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  one-fifth  ;  and  if  several 
Orders  are  used,  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  may  have  each  one-fourth  of  the  height 
of  the  Order,  exclusive  of  the  Pedestal,  for  the  height  of  the  entablature. 


©Mamsf^T^^i®©: 


As  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  to  whom  architecture  is  so  much 
indebted  in  other  respects,  lived  in  warm  climates,  where  fires  in  the  apartments  were 
seldom  or  never  necessary,  they  have  thrown  but  few  lights  on  this  branch  of  archi- 
tecture:  amongst  the  antiquities  of  Italy,  I  do  not  recollect  any  remains  of  chimney- 
pieces.     Palladio,  indeed,  mentions  two,  the  one  at  Baise,  and  the  other  near  Civita- 

G 


S6  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Vecchia,  which  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  rooms,  and  consisted  of  columns  support- 
ing architraves,  whereon  were  placed  the  pyramids,  or  funnels,  through  which  the 
smoke  was  conveyed,  much  after  the  manner  of  the  fire-place  in  the  Rotunda  of 
Ranelagh  Gardens.  Scammozzi  takes  notice  of  three  sorts  of  chimney-pieces  used 
in  Italy  in  his  time.  One  of  these  he  calls  the  Roman,  the  aperture  of  which  is 
surrounded  only  with  a  clumsy  architrave:  another  he  calls  the  Venetian,  which  is 
likewise  adorned  with  an  architrave,  upon  which  are  placed  a  frieze  and  cornice,  and 
on  the  sides  thereof  are  pilasters  with  consoles ;  the  third  sort  he  calls  a  padiglione. 
This  last  he  particularly  recommends  when  the  walls  are  thin,  it  being  not  hollowed 
into  the  wall,  as  both  the  other  sorts  are,  but  composed  of  a  projecting  entablature, 
supported  by  consoles,  termini,  or  caryatides,  on  which  the  pyramid  is  placed.  This 
sort  of  chimney-piece  is  still  very  common  in  Italy  ;  the  Dutch  are  very  fond  of  it ; 
and  we  find  it  in  many  of  our  old  English  country-houses.  Neither  the  Italians  nor 
the  French,  nor  indeed  any  of  the  continental  nations,  have  ever  excelled  in  the  com- 
positions of  chimney-pieces.  I  believe  we  may  justly  consider  Inigo  Jones  as  the  first 
that  arrived  at  any  great  degree  of  perfection  in  this  material  branch  of  the  art. 
Others  of  our  English  architects  have,  since  his  time,  wrought  upon  his  ideas,  or  fur- 
nished good  inventions  of  their  own  ;  and  England  being  at  present  possessed  of  many 
ingenious  and  very  able  sculptors,  one  of  whom  devotes  himself  to  the  execution  of 
magnificent  chimney-pieces,  now  happily  much  in  vogue,  it  may  be  said,  that  in  this 
particular  we  surpass  all  other  nations,  not  only  in  point  of  expense,  but  likewise  in 
taste  of  design,  and  excellence  of  workmanship.  Scammozzi  mentions  a  chimney- 
piece  in  one  of  the  public  buildings  at  Venice,  executed  from  his  design,  as  a  most 
uncommon  piece  of  magnificence,  having  cost  upwards  of  a  thousand  crowns. 

The  size  of  the  chimney  must  depend  upon  the  dimensions  of  the  room  wherein 
it  is  placed.  In  the  smallest  apartments,  the  width  of  the  aperture  is  never  made 
less  than  from  three  feet,  to  three  feet  six  inches :  in  rooms  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  feet  square,  or  of  equal  superficial  dimensions,  it  may  be  four  feet  wide ;  in 
those  of  twenty-five  to  thirty,  from  four  to  four  and  a  half;  and  in  such  as  exceed 
these  dimensions,  the  aperture  may  be  extended  to  five,  or  five  feet  six  inches ;  but 
should  the  room  be  extremely  large,  (as  is  frequently  the  case  in  halls,  galleries,  and 
saloons,)  and  one  chimney  of  these  last  dimensions  will  neither  afford  sulliciont  heat 
to  warm  the  room,  nor  sufficient  space  around  it  for  the  company,  it  will  be  much 
more  convenient,  and  far  handsomer,  to  have  two  chimney-pieces  of  a  moderate  size, 
than  a  single  one  exceedingly  large,  all  the  parts  of  which  would  appear  clumsy  and 
disproportioned  to  the  other  decorations  of  the  room. 

The  chimney  should  always  be  situated  so  as  to  be  immediately  seen  by  those  who 
enter,  that  they^  may  not  have  the  persons  already  in  the  room,  who  are  generally 
seated  about  the  fire,  to  search  for.  The  middle  of  the  side  partition  wall  is  the 
properest  place  in  halls,  saloons,  and  other  rooms  of  passage,  to  wliich  the  principal 
entrance  is  commonly  in  the  middle  of  the  front,  or  of  the  back  wall ;  but,  in  draw- 
ing-rooms, dressing-rooms,  and  the  like,  the  middle  of  the  back  wall  is  the  best 
situation,  the  chimney  being  then  farthest  removed  from  the  doors  of  communication. 
The  case  is  the  same  with  respect  to  galleries  and  libraries,  where  doors  of  entrance 
are  generally  either  at  one  or  at  both  ends.  In  bed-chambers,  the  chimney  is  always 
placed  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the  side  partition  Malls;  and  in  closets,  or  other  very 
small  places,  it  is,  to  save  room,  sometimes  placed  in  one  corner. 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S    ASSISTANT.  87 

Whenever  two  chimneys  are  introduced  in  the  same  room,  they  must  be  regularly 
placed,  either  directly  facing  each  other,  if  in  different  walls,  or  at  equal  distances 
from  the  centre  of  the  wall  in  which  they  both  are  placed.  The  Italians  frequently 
put  their  chimneys  in  the  front  walls,  between  the  windows,  for  the  benefit  of  look- 
ing out  while  sitting  by  the  fire :  but  this  must  be  avoided,  for  by  so  doing,  that  side 
of  the  room  becomes  crowded  with  ornaments,  and  the  other  sides  are  left  too  bare  ; 
the  front  walls  are  much  weakened  by  the  funnels  ;  and  the  chimney  shafts  at  the  top 
of  the  building,  which  must  necessarily  be  carried  higher  than  the  ridges  of  the  roofs, 
have,  from  their  great  length,  a  very  disagreeable  effect,  and  are  very  liable  to  be 
blown  down. 

In  large  buildings,  when  the  walls  are  of  a  considerable  thickness,  the  funnels  are 
carried  up  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  but  in  small  ones  this  cannot  be  done;  the 
flues  and  chimney-pieces  must  necessarily  advance  forward  into  the  rooms,  which, 
when  the  break  is  considerable,  has  a  very  bad  effect :  and  therefore,  when  room  can 
be  spared,  it  will  always  be  best,  either  in  show  or  state  apartments,  to  make  niches 
or  arched  recesses  on  each  side ;  and  in  lodging-rooms,  presses,  or  closets,  either 
covered  with  the  paper,  or  finished  in  any  manner  suited  to  the  rest  oi'  the  room. 
By  these  means,  the  cornice,  or  entablature  of  the  room,  may  be  carried  round  with- 
out breaks,  the  ceiling  be  perfectly  regular,  and  the  chimney-piece  have  no  more 
apparent  projection  than  may  be  necessary  to  give  to  its  ornaments  their  proper 
relief. 

The  proportion  of  the  apertures  of  chimney-pieces,  of  a  moderate  size,  is  gene- 
rally near  a  square ;  in  small  ones  a  trifle  higher,  and  in  large  ones  somewhat  lower. 
Their  ornaments  consist  of  architraves,  friezes,  cornices,  columns,  pilasters,  termini, 
caryatides,  consoles,  and  all  kinds  of  ornaments  of  sculpture,  representing  animal  or 
vegetable  productions  of  nature ;  likewise  vases,  patera?,  trophies  of  various  kinds, 
and  instruments  or  symbols  of  religion,  arts,  arms,  letters,  and  commerce.  In  design- 
ing them,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  nature  of  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  em- 
ployed. Such  as  are  intended  for  halls,  guard-rooms,  saloons,  galleries,  and  other 
considerable  places,  must  be  composed  of  large  parts,  fe\v  in  number,  of  distinct  and 
simple  forms,  and  having  a  bold  relief;  but  chimney-pieces  tor  drawing-rooms,  dress- 
ing-rooms, bed-chambers,  and  such  like,  may  be  of  a  more  delicate  and  complicated 
composition.  The  workmanship  of  all  chimney-pieces  must  be  perfectly  well  fin- 
ished, like  afl  other  objects  liable  to  a  close  inspection  :  and  the  ornaments,  figures, 
and  profiles,  both  in  form,  proportion,  and  quantity,  must  be  suited  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  room,  and  be  allusive  to  the  uses  for  which  it  is  intended.  All  nudities,  and 
indecent  representations,  must  be  avoided,  both  in  chimney-pieces  and  in  every  other 
ornament  of  apartments  to  which  children,  ladies,  and  other  modest,  grave  persons 
have  constant  recourse;  together  with  all  representations  capable  of  exciting  horror, 
grief,  disgust,  or  any  gloomy,  unpleasant  sensations. 

Chimney-pieces  are  made  either  of  stone,  marble,  or  of  a  mixture  of  these,  with 
wood,  scagliola,  or  moula,  or  some  other  unfragile  substances.  Those  of  marble  are 
most  costly,  but  they  are  also  most  elegant,  and  the  only  ones  used  in  highly  finished 
apartments,  where  they  are  made  either  of  white  or  variegated  marbles,  sometimes 
inlaid  and  decorated  with  the  materials  just  mentioned.  All  their  ornaments,  figures, 
or  profiles,  are  to  be  made  of  the  pure  v.  hite  sort ;  but  their  friezes,  etablets,  panels, 
shafts  of  columns,  and  other  plain  parts,  may  be  of  particolored  marbles,  such  as 


28  THE    YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

the  yellow  of  Sienna,  the  brocatello  of  Spain,  the  jasper  of  Sicily,  and  many  other 
modern  as  well  as  antique  marbles.  Festoons  of  flowers,  trophies,  and  foliages,  frets, 
and  other  such  decorations,  cut  in  white  statuary  marble,  and  fixed  on  grounds  of 
these,  have  a  very  good  effect.  But  these  should  never  be  more  than  two  or  at  the 
most  three  different  sorts  of  colors  in  the  same  chimney-piece ;  all  brilliant,  and 
harmonizing  with  each   other. 


PLATE  31. 


Fig.  1. 

A  design  for  a  console  mantle 

Fig.  2. 

A  design  for  column  mantle. 

Fig.  3. 

Profile  of  fig.  1. 

Fig.  4. 

Profile  of  fig.  2. 

The  roses  in  the  square  of  the  console,  and  feet  on  the  frieze  of  the  column,  ex- 
ample, may  be  made  of  cast  metal,  such  as  brass  or  iron ;  and  inserted  in  the  aper- 
ture, if  the  mantles  are  made  of  marble ;  if  of  wood,  the  whole,  including  the  en- 
richment case,  should  be  formed  out  of  the  same  material. 


PLATE  32. 

Elevations  and  profiles,  full  size,  of  two  roseates  for  the  blocks  of  pilaster  and 
architraves. 

Fig.  3.   Profile  of  fig.  1. 

Fig.  4.    Profile  of  fig.  2. 


PLATE  33,  &  34, 


Are  four  examples  of  Mantles.  In  ornamenting  a  Mantle,  the  young  Carpenter 
would  do  well  to  endeavor  at  an  imitation  of  something  natural,  and  not  to  cover 
his  work  with  unmeaning  holes  and  cuttings  of  a  gouge. 

Mantles  and  all  other  Architectural  objects  should  always  have  a  due  proportion 
of  plain  surfaces,  as  a  contrast  of  the  ornamented  parts.  With  strict  propriety,  the 
faces  of  Architraves  should  never  be  fluted  or  carved.  It  very  rarely  occurs  among 
the  beautiful  remains  of  Antiquity,  whose  Artists  seem  to  have  understood  true 
taste  much  better  than  those  of  the  present  day,  or  their  works  would  not  have 
excited  the  admiration  of  so  many  ages.  The  use  of  composition  ornaments,  on 
Mantles,  if  judiciously  chosen  and  placed,  may  have  a  very  good  effect ;  but  care 
should  be  taken,  not  to  overload  the  work  with  them  ;  and  that  there  be  a  proper 
connexion  between  the  ornaments  on  different  parts. 


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THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  29 

PLATE  35. 

Of  Intercoluviniation. 

This  Plate  represents  two  Porticos  ;  one  Doric,  and  the  other  Corinthian.  It  is 
necessar)^  in  all  Orders  where  there  are  modillions,  that  the  column  should  be 
exactly  under  a  inodillion.  The  Doric  Order  does  not  admit  of  the  columns  being 
coupled,  as  they  are  in  the  Corinthian ;  the  space  from  centre  to  centre  of  the  mo- 
dillions or  triglyphs  being  but  75  minutes,  when  two  columns,  with  the  bases  touching, 
would  be  80  minutes  from  centre  to  centre.  The  examples  in  the  Plate  are  both 
of  small  Porticos ;  and,  to  admit  of  a  convenient  space  between  the  columns,  the 
intercolumniation,  or  space  between  the  columns,  is  greater  than  it  should  be  when 
the  Porticos  are  large,  and  a  graceful  appearance  is  required.  To  admit  of  a  free 
passage  to  the  door,  the  middle  columns  are  placed  further  apart  than  the  others; 
though  this  is  sometimes  dispensed  with,  and  the  spaces  made  uniform. 


PLATE  36. 

Of  Roofs. 

This  Plate  gives  three  examples  of  framing  for  principal  rafters  for  Roofs.  In 
designing  these,  the  material  for  the  covering  should  be  considered ;  whether  it  would 
require  a  strong  frame  and  steep  pitch,  as  tile  or  slate,  or  whether  shingles,  or  any 
kind  of  metal  is  to  be  used.  Both  the  strength  of  framing,  and  the  pitch  of  the 
examples,  in  the  Plate,  are  calculated  for  shingles. 

It  is  a  considerable  improvement  in  framing  principal  rafters,  to  keep  them  below 
the  purlins,  and  to  let  the  jack-rafters  lie  on  the  purlins ;  the  Roof,  besides  being 
much  stiffer,  being  easier  regulated,  or  kept  straight  on  the  top  ;  and  the  feet  of  the 
rafters  are  brought  so  far  from  the  end  of  the  girder  as  to  be  much  stronger  in  their 
footing ;  the  dotted  lines,  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter,  show  the  shape  of  the  tenon,  which 
should  be  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  rafter,  and  the  ends  to  fit  hard  in  the  mor- 
tise. A  screw-bolt,  to  go  through  the  girder  up  into  the  post,  is  a  better  way  of 
supporting  the  girder  than  a  strap ;  the  nut  is  let  into  the  post  in  the  same  manner 
that  a  bedstead  screw  is. 

The  customary  pitch  for  Roofs,  which  are  covered  with  shingles,  is,  one-third  of 
the  span  for  the  height ;  and  to  find  the  length  of  the  rafter,  take  half  the  span  and 
square  it,  and  the  whole  height  and  square  that ;  add  the  square  of  these  two 
together,  and  from  that  sum  extract  the  square  root,  which  will  be  the  length  of  the 
rafter. 

H 


30  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

EXAMPLE. 

Suppose  a  Roof  to  span  45  feet,  to  rise  one-third,  or  15  feet. 
Half  of  45  is  22.5  The  height  15 

22.5  15 


112  5  75 

450  15 

450 


Square  of  half-span  506.25 
Square  of  the  height  225. 


Square  of  the  height  225 


731.25(27.0  feet,  length  of  rafter. 
4 


47)331 
329 


540)2  25 


PLATE  37. 

Of  Domes. 

A  is  the  section  and  B  is  the  half-plan  of  the  framing  for  a  Dome  to  have  a  vaulted 
ceiling  and  an  opening  for  a  sky-light.  This  frame  is  taken  from  P.  Nicholson,  and 
to  me  appears  to  be  abundantly  too  strong.  If  we  consider  that  the  purlins  form  a 
number  of  bands  round  a  roof  of  this  form,  which  must  burst  before  the  roof  falls 
in,  we  will  find  that  we  have  little  else  to  do  but  to  connect  the  ends  of  the  purlins 
so  as  to  form  hoops  round  the  Dome,  and  it  is  impossible  for  the  roof  to  fall  in, 
wliile  the  hoops  are  entire. 


PLATE  38. 

Dome  of  hoards  and  plank. 


Fig.  A  is  the  section  of  a  Dome  made  with  thin  boards  and  small  pieces  of  plank. 
The  principle  of  this  form  of  roof  consists  in  placing  a  number  of  hoops  one  above 
the  other,  and  of  such  sizes  as,  when  properly  placed,  will  form  the  contour  of  the 
Dome.  These  hoops  are  here  formed  by  pieces  of  plank,  represented  by  fig.  D  at 
the  bottom  of  the  Plate  ;  near  each  end  of  this  is  a  pretty  long  mortise  ;  the  position 


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Pi'</  r. 


THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  31 

of  these  is  shown  in  the  section  A  hy  d  d  d.  Fig.  C  is  one  of  the  ribs  or  rafters 
with  a  mortise  in  the  middle  of  it  long  enough  to  receive  two  of  fig.  D,  and  at 
each  end  a  sliding  mortise  of  half  that  length,  represented  in  section  A  hy  c  c  c. 
When  these  are  to  be  put  together,  the  wall-plate  (which  should  be  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  boards,  and  made  to  break  joint)  should  be  first  laid,  and  then  a  piece  of 
the  rafter,  fig.  C,  should  be  fixed  upright  in  its  proper  place  and  secured  by  a  tenon 
at  the  lower  end,  which  must  go  through  the  Plate.  It  should  be  observed,  that  the 
rafters  are  of  two  thicknesses,  which  should  break  joint ;  of  course,  one  of  the  first 
pieces  should  be  but  half  the  length  of  fig.  C.  When  one  set  of  the  rafters  are  fixed 
all  round,  the  pieces,  fig.  D,  which  form  the  hoops,  or  which  I  shall  call  the  purlins, 
are  fixed  in  them,  and  secured  by  wooden  keys,  which  are  driven,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  rafter,  through  the  mortise.  By  driving  these  keys,  more  or  less,  the  hoop  may 
be  lengthened  or  contracted,  so  as  to  bring  it  to  the  exact  form  or  contour  of  the 
Dome.  After  the  first  set  of  purlins  are  fixed  and  properly  keyed,  another  set  of 
rafters  are  placed,  and  then  another  set  of  purhns,  until  the  Dome  is  complete. 

The  figure  in  the  Plate,  for  the  sake  of  making  its  parts  more  clear,  has  been 
drawn  considerably  out  of  proportion,  the  materials  being  much  too  large,  and  a 
much  greater  number  of  purlins  would  be  proper.  This  principle  of  covering  may 
be  extended  to  a  great  span,  and  when  the  rafters  come  too  close  together,  at  the 
top,  every  other  one  may  be  left  out. 


PLATE  39. 

Hip-Roofs. 

Fig.  A  is  a  square  plan,  to  be  covered  with  a  Hip-Roof.  To  find  the  length  of 
the  hip-rafter,  draw  the  diagonals  «  b  and  c  d,  which  will  bisect  each  other  at  right 
angles  at  e;  make  e/ equal  to  the  height  of  the  roof,  and  draw  a  f,  which  will  be 
the  length  of  the  hip-rafter.  To  find  the  bevel  of  the  back,  draw  i  k  at  right  angles 
with  a  e,  to  cut  it  in  any  point,  as  h,  place  one  foot  of  the  compasses  in  Ji  and  extend 
the  other  to  the  back  of  the  rafter  af,  and  describe  a  semicircle  to  cut  the  base-line 
a  e  at  ^;  then  draw  g  i  and  g  k,  which  will  be  the  backing  of  the  hip,  as  is  shown 
by  the  level  at  B.  But  the  best  way  of  working  it  is  by  the  side-bevel  at  C,  which 
is  made  by  drawing  /  k  parallel  to  a  e. 

Fig.  B  is  an  oblong  rectangular  plan,  to  be  covered  with  a  ridge  in  the  middle. 
Make  c  d  on  the  ridge  equal  to  half  the  width  a  h,  and  draw  a  d  ;  at  right  angles  to 
which  make  d  e  equal  to  the  height  of  the  roof,  and  draw  a  e,  which  will  be  the 
length  of  the  hip-rafters.  As  these  may  also  answer  for  sky-lights,  and  the  hip- 
rafters  of  those  are  sometimes  mitred  together,  the  bevel  for  the  mitre  is  here  given. 

Fig.  C  is  the  same  plan  as  the  foregoing,  to  be  covered  Avithout  any  ridge.  Draw 
two  diagonal  lines  to  cross  each  other  in  the  centre  ate;  draw  c/ equal  to  the 
height  of  the  Roof  and  at  right  angles  with  a  c,  and  draw  a /the  hip-rafter.  To 
find  the  backing,  draw  m  b  at  right  angles  with  a  c,  and  proceed  as  in  the  former 
cases,  when  the  two  bevels  D  and  E  will  be  found  by  making  their  stocks  parallel  to 


32  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S    ASSISTANT. 

the  base-line  a  c.  At  F  is  given  the  bevel  for  mitring  hips  for  sky-lights,  found  by 
drawing  o  p  a.t  right  lines  with  the  diagonal  or  base-hne. 

Fig.  D  is  an  octangular  plan.  The  hips  are  found  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
preceding.  By  making  the  height  a  b  at  right  angles  to  one  of  the  base-lines,  the 
bevel  is  shown  at  E.  - 

Fig.  E  is  the  plan  whose  sides  are  parallel,  but  the  ends  out  of  square.  To  fiod 
the  hips,  on  each  end,  as  a  diameter,  draw  a  semicircle,  and  from  the  two  cenjfes 
draw  the  ridge ;  where  the  semicircles  cross  this,  will  be  the  points  to  draw  the  wise- 
lines  for  the  hips.     The  bevels  F  and  G  are  found  as  before  directed. 


PLATE  40. 

Centres  for  Arches. 


In  making  centres,  the  manner  in  which  the  framing  is  strained  should  be  well 
understood,  as  frequently  a  piece  of  timber  which  is  intended  to  form  a  tie,  and 
framed  to  answer  the  end  of  one,  will,  by  an  alteration  of  the  pressure  on  the  centre, 
in  turning  the  arch,  become  a  strut ;  and  so  vice  versa,  a  strut  become  a  tie ;  and 
joints,  which  it  was  expected  would  be  pressed  hard,  have  become  open,  and  required 
strapping  to  secure  them. 

Fig.  A  will  explain  a  simple  trussing  for  a  centre.  It  is  alwaj's  expected  that 
the  abutments  for  the  arch  are  sufficient  for  the  centre ;  and  that  a  tie  beam  across 
the  bottom  is  useless.  Supposing  the  footing  a  and  b  are  secure,  any  two  pieces  of 
timber,  as  a  c  and  c  b,  connected  at  c  like  rafters,  and  footing  at  a  and  b,  will  bear 
any  pressure  at  c,  both  acting  as  struts ;  and,  unless  they  bend,  the  centre  will  not 
vary  its  shape  at  the  point  c.  The  same  may  be  said  of  a  d  and  d  b,  and  also  of  a  e 
and  e  b. 

It  is  on  this  principle  the  centre,  fig.  B,  is  drawn,  a  and  b  being  the  abutments, 
and  c  d  and  e  corresponding  with  the  same  letters  in  fig.  A,  the  pieces/^  /*  and  i 
are  both  ties  and  struts ;  and  the  joining  of  k  and  /  into  h  should  be  made  like 
the  footing  of  rafters,  as  /i  is  a  tie  for  them  while  it  forms  a  strut  in  a  line  with 
m  and  n  to  bear  the  pressure  on  the  centre  at  c.  In  this  frame  the  scantling  is 
all  short.  If  timber  could  be  procured  long  enough  to  reach  the  length  of  the 
three  pieces  m  h  and  n,  it  would  be  better  to  make  it  in  one  piece,  and  halve  all 
the  joints ;  the  posts  op  and  y  might  then  be  in  two  thicknesses,  and  notched  out 
to  receive  the  frame  between  them,  r  and  s  arc  the  striking-wedges  by  which  the 
centre  is  lowered,  after  the  arch  is  turned ;  t  and  u  the  blocking  by  which  it  is  sup- 
ported. 

It  is  of  considerable  importance,  in  making  centres  for  large  arches,  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  equilibration  or  balancing  of  arches  should  be  understood.  By  this  is  meant, 
that  the  line  of  the  arch  should  be  of  such  a  curve,  as  to  have  no  tendency  in  any 
part  either  to  rise  or  fall.  This  curve  is  found  by  taking  a  chain  of  equal  weight 
throughout,  and  suspending  it  from  two  points  placed  as  far  apart  as  the  arch  is  to 
span,  and  allowed  to  sag  till  it  touches  a  third  point,  placed  equidistant  from  the 
others,  and  so  far  from  a  right  line  connecting  them  as  the  arch  is  to  rise  ;  the  chain 


PLA  TE  40. 


D 


0 


I '[.ATE   11. 


t 


S 


^ 


PLATE  4'2. 


Sca.lt  •  ^  f^ct      jp 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  33 

will  then  describe  the  true  curve  of  an  arch,  which,  supposing  the  materials  to  be 
all  equal  in  weight,  M'ill  have  no  tendency  to  rise  or  fall  in  one  part  more  than  in 
another.  This  is  called  the  Catenarian  Curve,  and  is  represented  by  fig.  C,  a  and  b 
being  the  points  of  suspension  of  the  chain  and  the  span  of  the  arch,  and  c  d  the 
rise  of  the  arch.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  arch  is  loaded  more  in  one  part 
than  another,  as  in  a  bridge  filling  up  over  the  haunches  to  level  the  road.  To 
counterbalance  this,  and  preserve  the  equilibration  of  the  arch,  draw  a  section  of 
the  filling  up,  but  with  the  drawing  turned  with  the  upper  edge  downwards,  as  d  ef, 
fig.  C;  divide  along  this  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  at  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  and  sus- 
pend to  the  chain  a  c  b  pieces  of  chain,  of  the  same  make  from  the  points  g  h  i  k, 
&c.,  so  as  they  may  fall  over  the  divisions  1  2  3,  &c.  These  chains  being  cut  so 
as  to  just  reach  the  line  of  the  road,  d  e  f,  will  represent  the  filling  in  over  the 
haunches,  and  will  make  the  chain  a  c  b  the  form  of  an  arch  that  will  be  equally 
balanced. 

In  fig.  D,  I  have  given  a  curve  which  will  be  pretty  near  the  Catenarian ;  but 
drawn  from  centres  with  compasses.  «  is  the  centre  of  the  small  part  at  top,  and  b 
and  c  the  centres  of  the  other  parts. 


PLATE  41. 

Of  Stairs. 


Fig.  a  is  the  plan  of  an  open  Newel  Stairs,  with  two  quarter-paces ;  and  B 
is  an  elevation  of  the  same ;  C  being  that  part  which  is  between  the  two  quarter- 
paces. 

To  draw  the  Ramp  of  the  Rail. 

When  a  section  of  the  steps  is  drawn,  place  the  newel  posts  in  their  places,  making, 
them  fair  with  the  front  edge  of  the  steps,  and  draw  the  hand-rail,  making  it  2  feet 
from  the  top  of  the  steps  to  the  top  of  the  rail.  Lay  off  the  balusters,  and  let  the 
mitre  or  key  of  the  rail  come  on  the  first  baluster.  This  gives  the  height  of  the  first 
newel  post.  Make  the  othpr  posts  all  the  same  height ;  continue  the  line  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  rail  up  till  it  strikes  the  edge  of  the  newel  post  at  a,  fig.  B  ;  place  one  foot 
of  the  compasses  on  a,  as  a  centre,  and  extend  the  other  to  b  at  the  top  of  the  rail 
on  the  post,  and  draw  the  arc  b  c ;  then  draw  c  d  square  with  the  top  of  the  rail  till 
it  meets  the  level  of  the  rail  on  the  post  continued,  asb  d  ;  then  will  d  be  the  centre 
for  sweeping  the  Ramp. 


PLATE  42. 


A  is  the  plan,  and  B  the  section  or  elevation,  of  a  circular  or  geometrical 
Stairs.  In  drawing  the  plan,  I  have  made  the  circular  steps  to  come  beyond 
the  centre  of  the  circular  part  the  width  of  one  square  step.     By  that  means  the 

I 


34  THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

ends  of  the  circular  steps  are  made  wider,  and  the  difference  in  the  rake  of  the 
hand-rail,  between  the  square  and  circular  steps,  is  not  so  great  as  it  otherwise 
would  be. 

Fig.  C  shows  the  manner  of  drawing  a  bracket,  for  the  ends  of  the  circular  steps, 
which  shall  correspond  with  oae  made  for  a  square  step,  C  is  the  square-step 
bracket.  Draw  any  number  of  parallel  lines  across  this,  as  1  2,  and  those  par- 
allel to  it ;  then,  from  the  point  c,  draw  c  d  at  any  angle,  and  equal  in  length 
to  the  circular  bracket ;  draw  ordinates  from  the  lines  in  C,  as  2  3,  and  those  parallel 
to  it,  touching  the  line  c  d;  continue  those  lines  at  right  angles  with  r  rf,  as  3  4, 
and  those  parallel  to  it ;  take  the  distance  of  the  ordinates,  from  tke  line  e  r  to 
the  edges  of  the  bracket  C,  and  mark  them  on  the  corresponding  line  in  the  short 
bracket,  from  the  line  d  c,  and  through  those  points  trace  the  form  of  the  circular 
bracket. 


PLATE  43. 

To  draw  the  scroll  for  a  Hand-rail. 


Make  a  circle  three  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  as  a  b  c  d,  fig.  A ;  within  this 
make  a  square,  equal  to  one-third  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  as  efg  h;  divide  this 
into  36  small  squares,  as  is  represented  in  fig.  B  on  its  full  size,  and  laid  in  the  same 
position  as  in  A,  and  with  the  centres  numbered  by  which  the  scroll  is  drawn  ;  place 
one  foot  of  the  compasses  on  1  in  the  square,  and  extend  them  to  c,  and  draw  round 
to  1  on  the  edge  of  the  Rail ;  then  set  the  compasses  in  2  in  the  square,  and  extend- 
ing them  to  1  draw  round  to  2  on  the  edge,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  is  drawn  round 
to  6.  To  draw  the  outside  of  the  Rail,  set  in  its  thickness  from  6  to  12,  and  go  back 
by  the  same  numbers,  and  the  scroll  will  be  complete. 

To  draw  the  Curtail-step. 

At  i  k,  in  fig.  A,  place  the  thickness  of  a  baluster,  and  set  out  to  /  the  projection 
of  the  nosing ;  with  the  same  centres,  used  for  drawing  the  scroll,  draw  this  round 
till  it  meets  the  nosing  at  the  end  of  the  step,  drawn  with  the  same  projection.  The 
thickness  of  the  balusters,  being  set  off,  may  be  drawn  round  in  the  scroll,  and  they 
may  be  spaced  off,  making  them  the  same  distance  apart  that  the  other  balusters 
are. 

To  draw  the  Face-mould. 

Draw  the  pitch-boar^  /  k  I,  fig.  A,  making  the  base  k  I  cut  the  scroll  as  near  its 
centre  or  widest  part  as  possible.  Draw  ordinates  or  parallel  lines,  as  m  7i,  op,  q  r, 
&c.  across  the  scroll ;  draw  the  line  i  I,  in  fig.  C,  and  make  the  spaces  I  w  x  y,  &:c. 
in  fig.  C,  agree  with  the  spaces  /  lo  x  y,  &c.  on  the  line  /  /,  in  fig.  A  ;  draw  lines 
through  those  points,  in  fig.  C,  at  right  angles  with  /  /,  as  m  n  o  p,  &c.  Take  the 
distances  from  the  line  k  I  to  the  edge  of  the  scroll  at  A,  and  transfer  them  to  C,  as 
m  n,  0  p,  &c.  taking  to  the  edge  of  the  rail,  both  inside  and  outside.  Through  these 
points  the  Face-mould  C  may  be  traced  with  a  steady  hand ;  continue  the  line  of  the 


^^^TE  -l^i^ 


^^.A  TR  44. 


' 

( 

« 

1 

i 

■    M    !    i 

PLATE  45 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  35 

pitch-board  in  A  up  till  it  strikes  the  riser  of  the  second  step,  as  from  8  to  7,  and  set 
that  space  off  at  C  from  8  to  7;  at  Avhich  place  square  over  a  strong  mark,  the  use 
of  which  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

To  draw  the  Falling-mould. 

Draw  the  pitch-board  at  D ;  take  off  one-sixth  from  the  bottom,  and  draw  the  line 
116s;  take  the  distance  from  1 1  to  6  in  A,  and  set  it  from  11  to  6  in  D ;  make  the 
distance  from  6  to  s  in  D  equal  to  the  distances  round  the  rail  from  6  to  s  in  A  (being 
any  distance  beyond  the  first  quarter)  by  tracing  round  with  a  small  space  in  the 
compasses ;  divide  the  rake  of  the  rail  on  the  pitch-board,  and  the  level  of  it  out  to 
s,  into  any  equal  number  of  parts ;  and,  by  drawing  intersecting  lines,  the  top  of  the 
rail  is  given. 

The  Falling-mould  for  the  outside  is  drawn  in  the  same  manner ;  excepting  the 
distance  from  12  to  9  is  taken  from  the  outside  of  the  rail  from  12  to  9,  fig.  A. 

In  applying  these  to  use,  the  mark  at  7  on  C  should  be  made  to  correspond  with 
the  edge  a  6  of  the  pitch-board  in  the  Falling-moulds  D  and  E. 


PLATE  44. 

In  this  Plate  are  given  two  more  examples  of  scrolls  of  different  sizes ;  B  and  D 
contain  the  centres  for  drawing,  both  figured.  It  may  be  well  here  to  observe,  that, 
in  drawing  the  scroll,  a  line  should  be  drawn  from  the  centre  about  to  be  used 
through  the  one  used  last,  out  to  the  edge  of  the  scroll.  This  shows  where  to  com- 
mence the  sweep  for  that  quarter.  The  dotted  lines  in  A  and  C  will  make  this 
clearer. 


PLATE  45. 

To  draw  the  Moulds  for  an  Elliptical  Stair. 

The  plan  of  the  rail  being  drawn,  and  the  ends  of  the  steps  being  all  of  equal 
width  on  the  rail,  it  should  be  divided  round  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  there  are 
steps ;  then  take  the  tread  of  any  number  of  steps,  suppose  8,  and  let  h  h  fig.  H  be 
the  tread  of  8  steps ;  on  the  perpendicular  h  m  set  up  the  height  of  8  risers,  and 
draw  the  line  m  h  which  will  be  the  under  edge  of  the  falling  Mould.  The  Student 
will  observe,  that  this  falling  Mould  will  be  a  straight  line,  excepting  a  little  turn  at 
the  landing.  Next  mark  the  plan  of  the  rail  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  to  be 
pieces  in  the  rail  (in  this  there  are  three),  then  draw  a  chord-line  to  the  joints,  as  at 
E  C  and  G ;  also  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  chords  to  touch  the  convex  sides  of  the 
rail,  Bishh;  from  every  joint  draw  perpendiculars  to  their  respective  chords.  Now,  the 
tread  of  the  middle  piece  at  C  being  just  8  steps,  and  the  section  H  being  for  the 


36  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

same  number,  set  up  A  m  n  in  B  equal  to  h  m  n  in  H,  and  make  i  A  in  B  equal  in 
hei<^ht  to  i  /i  in  H ;  then  draw  n  i  and  draw  the  ordinates  1  «,  1  2  6,  1  3  c,  &c.  con- 
tinued till  they  touch  the  line  n  i ;  prick  off  the  ordinates  on  the  face-mould  from 
the  plan  C  agreeably  to  the  figuring,  and  trace  the  Mould  through  those  points,  and 
it  will  be  complete. 

The  Moulds  for  D,  and  F,  being  only  for  6  steps  each,  the  tread  of  6  steps  should 
be  set  off  from  i^  to  H  in  fig.  H,  and  the  height  H  A:  /  set  up  from  the  chord-lines  at 
D  and  F.  As  for  the  rest,  it  is  the  same  as  B. 


PLATE  46. 

To  draw  the  Moulds  for  glueing  Hand-rails  in  Veneers. 

Draw  a  plan  of  the  rail,  as  A,  on  which  mark  the  steps.  The  twisted  part  of  the 
rail,  which  is  to  be  veneered,  should  reach  over  one  of  the  square  steps,  both  at  top 
and  bottom ;  make  a  6  in  fig.  B  equal  to  stretch  out  of  the  outside  or  greatest  circle 
in  fig.  A,  and  a  c  equal  to  the  height  of  the  rises ;  again,  rf  e  is  the  compass  of  the 
lesser  circle,  set  in  the  middle  between  a  and  b  ;  and  d  f  \s  the  height  of  the  steps 
the  same  as  before ;  therefore  the  triangle  a  b  c  is  the  pitch-board  for  the  inside 
falling  Mould,  and  6  m  o  at  bottom  and  i  A  c  at  top  are  the  pitch-boards  of  two  com- 
mon steps  ;  which  lines,  when  intersected,  will  give  the  under  line  of  the  inside  falling 
Mould.  In  the  same  manner  df  e,  with  the  two  common  steps  k  g  f  at  the  top  and 
e  I  n  Sit  the  bottom,  will  give  the  under  line  of  the  outside  falling  Mould.  The  top 
lines  are  only  drawn  parallel  of  the  under  side  to  the  thickness  of  the  rail. 

In  applying  them  to  practice,  draw  a  line  t  p  to  touch  the  Mould  in  two  places. 
This  will  represent  the  edge  of  the  plank.  Next  square  over  several  lines,  as  p  q, 
where  the  Moulds  intersect,  and  at  /  a  r,  square  over  on  the  plank-lines  corresponding 
with  these,  and  mark  oft^  from  the  edge  of  the  plank  the  distances  p  q  and  /  s  on  one 
side,  and  t  r  on  the  other ;  make  the  Moulds  agree  with  these  points,  each  one  on 
its  proper  side,  and  mark  ofi'  the  rail.  The  plank,  being  of  a  sufficient  thickness  to 
allow  for  the  saw-curfs,  will,  when  cut  out,  and  twisted,  become  square,  and  of  the 
proper  size. 


PLATE  47. 

In  this  Plate  is  shown  the  manner  of  drawing  the  section  of  an  eave.  After  the 
form  of  the  cornice  is  fixed  on,  a  section  of  it  should  be  drawn,  either  by  a  proper 
scale,  or  to  its  full  size,  and  then  the  joist  should  be  drawn  with  its  lower  edge  on 
the  plancre.  From  the  top  of  the  cornice  draw  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and  from  that 
set  down  the  lath,  rafters,  &c.  and  it  will  show  the  proper  place  for  the  raising-piece. 


PL  A  TE  46. 


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THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  37 

To  proportion  the  Cornice  to  the  height  of  the  Building. 

Divide  the  whole  height  into  nineteen  parts ;  one  of  these  will  be  the  height  of  the 
Cornice.  This  is  a  general  rule,  which  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances ;  as  in  a 
very  high  building,  a  steeple,  for  instance,  it  would  be  too  much  ;  and  in  a  very  low 
one,  it  would  be  rather  too  little ;  and,  as  every  thing  is  in  some  degree  regulated  by 
fashion,  this  should  be  attended  to.  The  present  fashion  would  be  something  smaller 
than  the  above  proportion. 


PLATE  48. 

Drawing  Plans  and  Elevations. 


In  this  Plate  is  given  a  Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  small  house.  The  Student,  in 
drawing  a  Plan,  will  suppose  the  building  to  be  raised  just  above  the  principal  floor, 
and  the  wall  made  level  all  round ;  and  draw  his  plan  to  resemble  it  as  near  as 
possible ;  placing  the  partitions,  doors,  and  windows  in  their  proper  places.  The 
stairs  should  be  drawn  for  the  whole  story,  to  show  where  the  landing  for  the  next 
story  will  be.  In  drawing  the  ground-plan,  it  will  considerably  enliven  the  drawing 
to  give  the  appearance  of  a  shadow  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  by  drawing  one  line 
thicker  than  the  other.  To  do  this,  he  will  suppose  the  light  to  come  from  the  left 
hand  upper  corner  of  the  drawing,  and  make  the  lines  on  the  right  hand  and  lower 
side  of  the  walls  and  partitions  thick,  and  the  other  sides  thin  lines.  This  will  be 
better  understood  by  closely  inspecting  the  Plans  that  follow. 


PLATE  49, 

Is  a  design  for  a  large  building.  The  dotted  lines  A  B,  C  D,  and  E  F  show  the 
place  on  the  ground-plan,  through  which  the  sections  in  the  three  following  Plates 
are  drawn  ;  the  letters  on  the  sections  corresponding  with  the  letters  on  the  plans. 

The  plan  in  this  Plate  is  for  the  principal  story  or  first  floor, 
and  may  be  disposed  of  as  follows. 

n  Portico. 

h  Hall.  This  is  an  octagon  with  the  ceiling  vaulted,  and  includes  in  its  height  the 
mezanine,  or  small  story  between  the  two  principal  ones.    See  section  of  Plate  38. 

c  Vestibule.  This  is  lighted  from  a  sky-light,  and  at  the  second  story  has  a 
gallery  which  gives  a  communication  with  the  different  rooms.    See  section  of  Plate  38. 

d  Stairs. 

e  Saloon.  This  room  includes  in  its  height  the  mezanine,  and  has  a  music  gallery. 
See  section  of  Plate  40. 

y  Dining-room,  with  a  recess  for  a  sideboard. 

g  Library. 

h  Breakfast-parlor. 

/  Back-stairs. 

K 


38  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

PLATE  50, 

Contains  a  section  of  the  same  building  as  the  foregoing,  with  the  plan  for 

tlie  cellar  or  basement  story. 

In  drawing  a  section,  the  Student  will  pay  strict  attention  that  it  agrees  in  all  its 
parts  with  the  plans  for  the  different  stories,  and  that  the  section  represents  the 
building,  as  it  were,  cut  through  from  top  to  bottom,  on  the  line  of  the  plan,  from  which 
it  is  taken.  A  little  liberty  indeed  may  be  taken  with  stairs,  as,  when  the  section 
cuts  through  them,  to  represent  half  of  them  would  not  be  as  clear  as  if  all  were 
shown. 

The  plan  of  this  Plate  may  be  disposed  of  as  follows,  viz. 

a  Maid-servants'  room.    The  small  stair  gives  a  communication  with  the  mezanine, 
and  chamber  over  the  library. 
b  House-keeper's  room, 
c  Servants'  hall. 
d  Back-stairs. 
e  Kitchen. 

f  Men-servants'  room. 
g  h  and  i  Beer  and  Wine-cellars,  &c. 


PLATE  51. 

The  same  building  continued.  The  plan  is  for  the  mezanine,  or  small  story 
between  the  two  principal  stories.  Of  this,  a  b  c  and  d  are  the  upper  parts  of  the 
saloon,  stairs,  vestibule,  and  hall ;  the  others  are  small  rooms  for  servants,  &c. 

Mezanine  stories,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  mezetti,  are  of  use  in  a  large 
building,  where  souie  of  the  rooms  are  so  large  as  to  require  more  height  than  com- 
mon rooms,  to  be  well  proportioned ;  the  mezanine  being  thrown  into  the  height  of 
the  large  rooms.  And  they  also  afford  convenient  chambers  for  servants,  more 
particularly  those  whose  business  it  is  to  attend  on  the  Master  and  Mistress,  by 
affording  a  room  immediately  under  the  chambers  occupied  by  them,  with  a  private 
stairs  for  communication.  Were  it  not  for  this,  in  very  large  buildings,  the  Servants 
would  frequently  be  unavoidably  lodged  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  Heads 
of  the  Family. 


PLATE  52. 

The  same  continued.    The  plan  is  for  the  second  story,  in  which 

a  is  the  vestibule,  with  a  gallery  of  communication  from  the  stairs  to  the  different 
rooms. 

b  and  c  two  chambers,  with  each  an  antichamber  or  dressing-room.  The  rest  are 
private  chambers ;  except  d  and  e,  which  are  stairs. 


rLATK  CO. 


FLA  TK  51. 


PLATE  y->. 


SKIRTINi;. 


PL  A  TE  Xi. 

tiyl 


Fig.  J. 


Fiff.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


DtSKjncd  ,t.b\iiyn  ^fi,f  ?/.■>■:■'■  i^^i 


STUCCO    CUKNKKS. 
PLATE  54. 


Dttigmd  I'dmurn  hy  JJJiiyilund 


KAILINC;. 


HAILING, 
PLATE  50. 


fill  1. 


n,i.z 


liy.j. 


r 


o 


o 


0/f,t^'U<t  A   Ji;ur?t  !//    ..'. Ha*'/^'i^l.i 


THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  39 

In  these  plans,  it  has  been  more  my  object  to  throw  as  great  a  variety  into  a 
small  compass,  as  was  readily  practicable,  than  to  give  eligible  plans  for  the  Builder  ; 
thereby  aiming  at  instruction  for  the  Student,  which  indeed  has  been  my  object 
throughout  this  Work. 


PLATE  53. 


Five  designs  for  the  mouldings  of  washboards  or  skirtings,  the  narrow  boards 
round  the  margin  of  a  floor,  forming  a  plinth  for  the  base  of  the  dado,  or  simply  a 
plinth  for  the  room  itself  should  there  be  no  dado. 

The  skirting  is  either  scribed  close  to  the  floor,  or  let  into  it  by  a  groove :  in  the 
former  case,  a  fillet  is  put  at  the  back  of  the  skirting  to  keep  it  firm. 


PLATE  54. 

Four  profiles  for  ceilings  of  rooms,  from  the  simple  to  the  more  enriched  finish. 
A  the  line  of  ceiUng ;  B  the  vertical  surface  of  the  wall. 


PLATE  55. 

Three  designs  for  wooden  rails,  for  balconies,  piazzas,  garden  fences,  &c. 


PLATE  56. 

Three  designs  for  iron  ditto. 


PLATE  57. 

Plan  and  elevation  of  a  design  for  a  church  of  moderate  dimensions  ;  being  50  by  75 
feet,  exclusive  of  front  steps  and  vestry-room.  A  the  porch  raised  6  rises  high.  B  the 
vestibule,  and  staircase  leading  to  the  gallery.  C  the  vestibule  and  staircase  to  the 
gallery  on  the  right.  D  the  grating  through  which  the  warm  air  passes  into  the  church 
from  a  furnace  underneath.  E  the  centre  aisle.  FF  the  centre  aisles.   G  the  commu- 


40  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

nion  table  and  chancel.  H  the  pulpit  and  reading  desk.  I  the  stairs  to  pulpit.  K 
the  vestry-room  and  library,  the  school-room  for  children  of  both  sexes.  Session 
and  prayer  meeting  and  lecture  rooms  are  disposed  in  the  basement,  with  an  internal 
communication  to  them  under  the  staircase  B  and  C  internally.  The  principal  floor 
contains  sixty-six  pews ;  each  pew  is  calculated  to  accommodate  six  persons,  making 
in  all  three  hundred  and  seventy-six ;  besides  fiftj^  in  the  public  seats  of  the  side  aisles. 
The  gallery  contains  about  two  hundred,  including  the  portion  occupied  by  the  chil- 
dren and  orchestra. 


Prison,  an  edifice  erected  for  the  confinement  of  debtors  and  criminals,  until  they 
be  discharged  or  convicted.  The  principal  properties  in  the  construction  of  a  prison 
are  those  of  strength  and  convenience.  Strength  is  of  tlie  utmost  consequence,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  prisoners ;  and  convenience,  to  promote  their  health ; 
to  have  the  apartments  of  their  due  size  and  arrangement,  according  to  the  diflerent 
species  of  criminals,  and  to  be  handy  in  respect  to  the  keeper. 

Howard,  in  speaking  of  the  situation  of  prisoners,  says,  "  a  county  gaol,  and 
indeed  every  prison,  should  be  built  on  a  spot  that  is  airy,  and,  if  possible,  near  a  river 
or  brook.  I  have  commonly  found  prisons  situate  near  a  river  the  cleanest  and  most 
health)'.  They  generally  have  not  (and,  indeed,  could  not  well  have)  subterraneous 
dungeons,  which  have  been  so  fatal  to  thousands ;  and  by  their  nearness  to  running 
water,  another  evil,  almost  as  noxious,  is  prevented — that  is,  the  stench  of  sewers. 

"  1  said  a  gaol  should  be  near  a  stream ;  but  I  must  annex  this  caution,  that  it  be 
not  so  near  as  that  either  the  house  or  yard  shall  be  within  the  reach  of  floods. 

"  If  it  be  not  practicable  to  build  near  a  stream,  then  an  eminence  should  be  chosen; 
for,  as  the  wall  around  a  prison  should  be  so  high  as  greatly  to  obstruct  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air,  this  inconvenience  should  be  lessened  by  rising  ground ;  and  the 
prison  should  not  be  surmounted  by  other  buildings,  nor  built  in  the  middle  of  a  town 
or  city. 

"  That  part  of  the  building  which  is  detached  from  the  walls,  and  contains  the  men- 
felons'  ward,  may  be  square  or  rectangular,  raised  on  arcades,  that  it  may  be  more 
airy,  and  have  under  it  a  dry  walk  in  wet  weathei'.  These  wards  over  arcades  are 
also  best  for  safety ;  for  I  have  found  that  escapes  have  been  most  commonly  effect- 
ed by  undermining  cells  and  dungeons.  If  felons  should  find  any  other  means  to 
break  out  of  this  raised  ward,  they  will  still  be  stopped  by  the  wall  of  the  court, 
which  is  the  principal  security  ;  and  the  walls  of  the  wards  need  not  then  be  of  that 
great  thickness  they  are  generally  built ;  whereby  the  access  of  light  and  air  is 
impeded. 

"  I  wish  to  have  so  many  small  rooms,  or  cabins,  that  each  criminal  may  sleep 
alone.  These  rooms  to  be  ten  feet  high  to  the  crown  of  the  arch,  and  have  double 
doors,  one  of  them  iron  latticed,  for  the  circulation  of  air.  If  it  be  difiicult  to  pre- 
vent their  being  together  in  the  day-time,  they  shoifld,  by  all  means,  be  separated  by 
night.  Solitude  and  silence  arc  favorable  to  reflection  ;  and  may,  possibly,  lead  them 
to  repentance.     Privacy  and  hours  of  thoughtfulncss  are  necessary  for  those  who 


THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  41 

must  soon  leave  the  world  ;  (yet  how  contrary  to  this  is  our  practice  !  Keepers  have 
assured  me,  that  they  have  made  5  £.  a  day  after  the  condemnation  of  their  pris- 
oners.) In  the  Old  Newgate  there  were  liftecn  cells  for  persons  in  this  situation, 
which  are  still  left  standing,  and  are  annexed  to  the  new  building. 

"  The  separation  I  am  pleading  for,  especially  at  night,  would  prevent  escapes,  or 
make  them  very  difficult ;  for  that  is  the  time  in  which  they  are  generally  planned, 
and  eflected:  this  also  would  prevent  their  robbing  one  another  in  the  night.  Another 
reason  for  separation  is,  that  it  would  free  gaolers  from  a  difficulty  of  which  I  have 
heard  them  complain :  they  hardly  know  where  to  keep  criminals  admitted  to  be  evi- 
dence for  the  king :  these  would  be  murdered  by  their  accomplices,  if  put  among  them  ; 
and  in  more  than  one  prison,  I  have  seen  them,  for  that  reason,  put  in  the  women's 
ward. 

"  Where  there  arc  opposite  windows,  they  should  have  shutters ;  but  these  should 
be  open  all  day.  In  the  men-felons'  ward  the  windows  should  be  six  feet  from  the 
floor ;  there  should  be  no  glass ;  nor  should  the  prisoners  be  allowed  to  stop  them 
with  straw,  &c. 

"  The  women-felons'  ward  should  be  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  men ;  and  the 
young  criminals  from  old  and  hardened  offenders.  Each  of  these  three  classes  should 
also  have  their  day-room,  or  kitchen,  with  a  fire-place  ;  and  their  court  and  offices 
all  separate. 

"  Every  court  should  be  paved  with  flags,  or  flat  stones,  for  the  more  convenient 
washing  it;  and  have  a  good  pump,  or  water  laid  in;  both,  if  possible:  and  the  pump 
and  pipes  should  be  repaired  as  soon  as  they  need  it ;  otherwise  the  gaols  will  soon 
be  offensive  and  unwholesome ;  as  I  have  always  found  them  to  be  in  such  cases. 
A  small  stream  constantly  running  in  the  court  is  very  desirable.  In  a  room,  or  shed, 
near  the  pump  or  pipe,  there  should  be  a  commodious  bath,  with  steps,  (as  there  is 
in  some  country  hospitals,)  to  wash  prisoners  that  come  in  dirty,  and  to  induce  them 
afterwards  to  the  frequent  use  of  it.  It  should  be  filled  every  morning,  and  let  off  in 
the  evening  through  sewers  into  the  drains.  There  should  also  be  a  copper  in  the 
shed,  to  heat  a  quantity  of  water  sufficient  to  warm  that  in  the  bath,  for  those  that 
are  sickly.  There  should  also  lie  an  oven;  nothing  so  etTectually  destroys  vermin 
in  clothes  and  bedding,  nor  purifies  so  thoroughly  when  tainted  with  infection,  as 
being  a  few  hours  in  an  oven  moderately  heated. 

"  The  infirmary,  or  sick  w  ards,  should  be  the  most  airy  part  of  the  court,  quite 
detached  from  the  rest  of  the  gaol,  and  raised  on  arcades.  These  rooms  should 
never  be  without  cribs,  beds,  and  bedding.  In  the  middle  of  the  floor  of  each  room 
there  should  be  a  grate  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  square,  for  a  current  of  air ; 
covered  with  a  shutter  or  hatch.  The  sewers,  or  vaults,  of  all  prisons,  should  be  in 
the  courts,  and  not  in  the  passages,  and  (like  those  in  the  cottages)  close  boarded 
between  the  seats  up  to  the  ceiling,  the  boards  projecting  ten  inches  before  each 
seat. 

"  The  infirmary  and  sheds  will  not  render  the  court  unsafe,  provided  the  walls  have 
parapets  or  small  chevaux-dc-frize. 

"  Debtors  and  felons  should  have  wards  totally  separate :  the  peace,  the  cleanli- 
ness, the  health,  and  morals,  of  debtors,  cannot  be  secured  otherwise. 

"  The  ward  for  men  debtors  should  also  be  over  arcades,  and  placed  on  one  side 
of  the  gaoler's  house.     This  house  should  be  in  or  near  the  middle  of  the  gaol,  with 


42  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

windows  looking  into  the  felons'  and  the  debtors'  courts.  This  would  be  a  check  on 
the  prisoners,  to  keep  them  in  order ;  and  would  engage  tiie  gaoler  to  be  attentive 
to  cleanliness,  and  constant  washing,  to  prevent  his  own  apartments  from  being 
offensive. 

"  A  chapel  is  necessary  in  a  gaol.  I  have  chosen  for  it  what  seems  to  me  a  proper 
situation.  It  should  have  a  gallery,  for  women ;  for  the  latter  should  be  out  of  sight 
of  all  the  other  prisoners  ;  and  the  rest  may  be  separated  below.  Bibles  and  prayer- 
books  should  be  chained  at  convenient  distances  on  each  side ;  those  who  tear  or 
otherwise  damage  them,  should  be  punished." 


^SOTl*®  111*1  ASiT, 


A  Penitentiary  House  is  a  place  for  the  reception  of  criminals  whose  crimes  are 
not  so  heinous  as  to  meet  severer  punishment  than  solitary  confinement  and  hard 
labor ;  and  where  means  are  practised  to  reclaim  the  vicious. 


PLATE  58. 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  Design  for  a  County  Gaol. 

A,  the  porch  and  entrance.  B,  the  lobby.  C,  entrance  to  the  debtors'  ward.  D, 
entrance  to  the  felons'  ward.  E,  stairs  to  the  apartments  of  the  felons'  keepers.  F, 
stairs  to  the  apartments  of  the  debtors'  keepers  and  infirmary.  G,  steps  to  the  do- 
mestics' yard  baths,  and  privies  of  the  debtors.  H,  steps  to  the  yard  of  the  felons' 
domestics.  I,  yard  of  the  domestics  and  keeper  of  felons'  department.  K,  location 
of  the  felons'  baths  and  privies.  L,  baths  and  privies  of  the  debtors'  ward.  M,  yard 
of  the  debtors'  domestics.  N,  office  of  the  debtors'  ward.  O,  office  of  felons'  ward. 
P,  felons'  cells.  Q,  passage  of  the  felons'  cells.  R,  passage  of  the  debtors'  ward.  S, 
debtors'  rooms.  T,  yard  containing  the  privies  and  baths  of  the  debtors.  U,  yard 
containing  the  privies  and  baths  for  the  felons.  V,  exercising  yard  and  work-shops 
of  felons.    W,  exercising  yard  of  debtors. 

This  building  is  designed  to  be  erected  three  stories  high.  The  front  part  occupied 
for  the  infirmary  and  sleeping-rooms  of  the  keepers ;  the  basement  of  the  front,  the 
cooking  offices,  and  the  basement  of  the  gaol  departments,  to  be  open  and  arched,  for 
the  exercise  of  prisoners  in  wet  weather,  as  well  as  to  prevent  excavation.  The 
yard  may  be  extended  to  any  desired  dimension,  and  the  plan  otherwise  extended 
longitudinally,  without  interfering  with  the  convenience  and  desired  properties,  so  as 
to  accommodate  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  prisoners.  The  proportion  of  the  several 
rooms  and  other  features  of  the  design  may  be  ascertained  by  referring  to  the  scale 
to  which  it  is  drawn. 


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THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT.  43 


House,  a  habitation,  or  a  building  constructed  for  sheltering  a  man's  person  and 
goods  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  and  the  injuries  of  ill-disposed  persons. 
Houses  differ  in  magnitude,  being  of  two  or  three  and  four  stories ;  in  the  materials 
of  which  they  consist,  as  wood,  brick,  or  stone ;  and  in  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  designed,  as  a  manor-house,  farm-house,  cottage,  &c. 

Ancient  Rome  consisted  of  48,000  houses,  all  insulated  or  detached  from  each 
other. 

It  is  a  thing  principally  to  be  aimed  at,  in  the  site  or  situation  of  a  country-house, 
or  seat,  that  it  have  wood  and  water  near  it. 

It  is  far  better  to  have  a  house  defended  by  trees  than  hills ;  for  trees  yield  a  cool- 
ing, refreshing,  sweet,  and  healthy  air  and  shade,  during  the  heat  of  the  summer, 
and  very  much  break  the  cold  winds  and  tempests  from  every  point  in  the  winter. 
The  hills,  according  to  their  situation,  defend  only  from  certain  windt< ;  inid  if  they 
are  on  the  north  side  of  the  house,  as  they  defend  from  the  cold  air  m  winter,  so 
they  also  deprive  you  of  the  cool  refreshing  breezes,  which  are  commonly  blown 
thence,  in  the  summer.  And  if  the  hills  are  situate  on  the  south  side,  they  then  prove 
also  very  inconvenient.  A  house  should  not  be  too  low  seated,  since  this  precludes 
the  convenience  of  cellars.  If  you  cannot  avoid  building  on  low  grounds,  set  the 
first  floor  above  the  ground,  the  higher,  to  supply  what  you  want  to  sink  in  your 
cellar  in  the  ground ;  for  in  such  low  and  moist  grounds,  it  conduces  much  to  the 
dryness  and  healthiness  of  the  air,  to  have  cellars  under  the  house,  so  that  the  floors 
be  good  and  ceiled  underneath.  Houses  built  too  high,  in  places  obvious  to  the 
winds,  and  not  well  defended  by  hills  or  trees,  require  more  materials  to  build  them, 
and  more  also  of  reparations  to  maintain  them ;  and  they  are  not  so  commodious  to 
the  inhabitants  as  the  lower  built  houses,  which  may  be  built  at  a  much  easier  rate, 
and  also  as  complete  and  beautiful  as  the  other.  In  houses  not  above  two  stories 
with  the  ground-room,  and  not  exceeding  twenty  feet  to  the  wall  plate,  and  upon  a 
good  foundation,  the  length  of  two  bricks,  or  eighteen  inches  for  the  heading  course, 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  ground-work  of  any  common  structure,  and  six  or  seven 
courses  above  the  earth  to  a  water-table,  where  the  thickness  of  the  walls  abated, 
or  taken  in,  on  either  side  the  thickness  of  brick,  najjely,  two  inches  and  a 
quarter. 

For  large  and  high  houses,  or  buildings  of  three,  and  four,  or  five  stories,  with  the 
garrets,  the  walls  of  such  edifices  ought  to  be  from  the  foundation  to  the  first 
water-table,  the  heading  courses  of  brick,  or  twenty-eight  inches  at  least;  and  at 
every  story  a  water-table,  or  taking  in  the  inside  for  the  girders  and  joints  to  rest 
upon,  laid  into  the  middle,  or  one  quarter  of  the  wall  at  least,  for  the  "better  bond. 
But  as  for  the  innermost  or  partition  wall,  a  half  brick  will  be  sufticicntly  thick ;  and 
for  the  upper  stories,  nine  inches  or  a  brick's  length  will  suffice. 

We  cannot  multiply  rules  for  the  different  parts  of  a  house ;  since  these  must  be 
modified  by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  in  which  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the  archi- 
tect must  direct :  but  we  shall  conclude  this  article  with  expressing  a  wish  that  con- 
trivers of  buildings  would  avail  themselves  more  of  an  important  modern  discovery 
in  natural  history,  viz.  the  superior  levity  of  infectious  and  unwholesome  air.     The 


44  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

upper  sashes  in  most  houses  are  too  frequently  immovable ;  in  consequence  of  which, 
no  part  of  the  foul  air  above  the*level  of  the  lowest  rail  of  the  other  sash's  greatest 
rise  can  escape  by  the  window  ;  and  if  it  escapes  by  the  doors,  it  is  generally  for 
want  of  a  vent  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof,  merely  to  accumulate  in  the  upper 
story  of  the  house,  and  add  to  the  infection  which  the  great  quantities  of  old  furni- 
ture usually  stored  up  there  arc  of  themselves  apt  to  create.  Thus  the  chief  advantage 
to  be  expected  from  lofty  rooms  is  in  a  measure  lost,  whereas,  were  the  upper  sashes 
contrived  so  as  to  draw  down,  all  the  air  might  be  easily  changed,  and  that  almost 
insensibly,  by  letting  them  down  an  inch  or  two.  The  upper  sash  might  be  often 
let  down  entirely,  with  less  danger  or  inconvenience  from  cold,  than  the  lower,  thrown 
up  the  tenth  part  of  an  inch :  though  the  doing  of  the  former  would  be  infinitely  the 
most  beneficial.  It  is  perhaps  on  this  principle  that  we  are  to  account  for  the  good 
health  enjoyed  by  the  poor  who  live  crowded  in  damp  cellars,  and  often  with  great 
numbers  of  rabbits,  poultry,  and  even  swine,  about  them.  These  cellars  are  open  to 
the  street,  with  doors  reaching  from  the  floor  to  the  very  ceiling,  but  never  so  close 
at  bottom  or  at  top  as  to  prevent  a  free  circulation  of  air ;  in  consequence  of  which, 
that  vivified  fluid,  as  fast  as  it  is  spoiled  by  passing  through  the  lungs  of  the  inhabit- 
ants and  their  stock,  or  is  infected  by  their  insensible  perspiration,  excrements,  &c. 
is  driven  out,  and  replaced  by  the  fresh  air. 


PLATE  59. 

Plmi  and  Elevation  of  a  Design  for  a  County  Town  House. 

A,  the  porch.  B,  vestibule.  C,  saloon.  D,  best  staircase.  E,  dining-room.  F, 
drawino^-room.  G,  library  and  study.  H,  private  domestic  staircase.  I,  china  closet. 
K,  parlor  or  breakfast  room.  L,  conservatory.  M,  servants'  piazza.  N,  family 
piazza. 

PLATE  60. 

Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  design  for  a  Country  Bank  thirty  feet  wide,  by  fifty  feet 
in  length.  • 

A,  the  private  entrance  to  the  dwelling  part  of  the  Building,  to  be  occupied  by  one 
of  its  officers :  the  stairs  communicate  to  a  kitchen,  parlor,  and  pantries,  under  the 
rear  of  the  banking-room  and  vaults.  B  C,  also  to  a  drawing-room  and  chambers 
over  the  second  floor,  and  domestic  chamber  of  the  roof.  B,  the  note  and  specie 
vault.  C,  the  vault  for  the  books  and  other  valuable  papers,  and  records.  D,  double 
iron  doors,  formed  on  the  most  approved  principles.  E,  niches  for  book-cases,  &c. 
F,  a  table.  G,  the  counter,  and  location  of  the  note-desk.  H,  the  receiving  teller's 
desk.  I,  the  paying  teller's  desk.  K,  the  grate  which  admits  the  warm  air  frjora 
a  furnace  below.  L  L,  long  tables,  with  drawers.  M,  the  space  or  jiassage'of 
access  for  business,  to  the  several  officers.  N,  president's  room.  O,  cashier's  room. 
P,  entrance,  Q,  steps  to  the  entrance.  R  R,  two  descending  sets  of  steps  leading 
to  offices  under  the  president's  and  cashier's  rooms,  as  well  as  to  the  director's  room 
in  the  rear.     It  is  here  designed  to  form  the  floor  and  ceiling  of  the  first  floor  fire- 


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INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


THE   YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  45 

proof,  of  brickwork ;  the  banking  room  M  to  be  grooved,  and  all  the  other  rooms  to 
be  with  barrel  or  cylindrical  arches,  and  the  roof  covered  with  slate. 

This  building  should  be  insulated  at  least  twenty  feet  on  either  side,  at  S  S,  so  as 
to  afford  sufficient  light  to  the  main  room  M,  and  secure  from  fire  of  the  neighboring 
houses.  A  Bank  has  recently  been  executed  by  Mr.  John  Haviland,  Architect,  of 
Philadelphia,  the  author  of  this  work,  at  Pottsville,  Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania, 
and  every  feature  of  the  front  (not  excepting  the  moulded  cornices)  formed  of  cast 
iron,  in  imitation  of  marble ;  and  it  is  believed  to  be  the  first  and  only  example  of 
this  material  being  employed  in  the  wholey«caf?e.  The  iron  plates  are  cast  in  lengths 
and  form  corresponding  with  the  size  and  jointing  of  the  stone-work,  backed  in  with 
masonry  two  feet  thick,  and  secured  to  the  same  by  wrought  iron  ties,  two  and  three 
to  each  plate  :  when  finished,  the  whole  was  well  painted  and  sanded  with  white  sand, 
which  gave  the  surface  a  very  beautiful  and  uniform  texture  of  stone,  free  from  gloss 
and  at  the  same  time  prevented  its  rusting.  It  is  very  much  to  be  regretted  that 
this  valuable  material  is  not  more  frequently  used,  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  perish- 
able ones  of  wood,  and  expensive  one  of  marble,  or  cut  free-stone.  Iron  is  not 
only  more  fire-proof,  durable,  and  stronger,  than  wood,  but  also  more  economical 
and  favorable  to  embellishment,  than  the  marble  or  cut  free-stone.  When  duplicates 
are  required,  the  labor  of  carved  and  moulded  work  in  one  pattern,  answers  for  all. 


The  following  Plates  I  have  been  induced  to  give,  as  containing  four  difl^erent 
varieties  in  Architecture.    Of  these,  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the  most  perfect. 

PLATE  61, 

Contains  a  draft  of  the  Frame  of  the  Bridge  constructed,  by  a  Company  incor- 
porated for  that  purpose,  over  the  Schuylkill,  at  the  west  end  of  High  or  Market- 
street  ;  with  a  section  of  the  Bed  of  that  River. 

The  westernmost  pier  of  this  Bridge  is  sunk  in  a  depth  of  water,  unexampled  in 
Hydraulic  Architecture,  in  any  part  of  the  world ;  the  top  of  the  rock  on  which  it 
stands  being  41  feet  9  inches  below  common  high  tides.  Both  piers  were  built  within 
Coflfer-dams.  The  dam  for  the  western  pier  was  of  origyial  and  peculiar  construction  : 
the  design  furnished  by  William  Weston,  Esq.  of  Gainsborough,  in  England,  a 
celebrated  Hydraulic  Engineer.  An  idea  of  its  magnitude  may  be  formed,  when  it 
is  known  that  800,000  feet  of  timber  (board  measure)  were  unavoidably  employed 
in  and  about  it.  It  was  executed,  under  the  orders  of  the  Building  Committee  of  the 
Board,  consisting  of  the  President  and  four,  and  sometimes  five,  Directors  (to  whom 
the  master^workmen  express  great  obligations)  by  Samuel  Robinson,  of  ttyg*  city. 
Every  disadvantage  to  which  such  difficult  undertakings  are  subject  (the  rock  being, 
in  sundry  parts,  nearly  bare,  and  aflbrding  no  footing  for  the  piles)  opposed  the 
progress  of  this.  So  that  it  could  not  be  ready  for  the  commencement  of  the  masonry, 
until  the  25th  of  December,  when  the  first  stone  was  laid  ;  and  the  work  continued, 
in  a  severe  winter,  to  the  height  then  proposed. 

The  stone-work  was  done  by  Thomas  Vickers,  under  the  orders,  and  with  the 
advice  and  constant  attention,  of  the  same  Committee ;  assisted,  on  emergencies, 
by  all  the  Members  of  the  Board,  and  the  Treasurer,  who  was  eminently  useful  on 
every  occasion.    The  masonry  is  executed  on  a  plan  suggested  to  the  mason,  uncom- 

m  M 


46  THE  YOUNG  CARPENTER'S  ASSISTANT. 

mon,  if  not  new.  The  walls  of  the  Abutments  and  Wings  a.xe perpendicular,  without 
buttresses ;  and  supported  by  interior  offsets.  These  are  found  completely  competent 
to  support  the  pressure  of  the  filling,  without  haltering  or  contreforts.  The  Abutments 
are  18  feet  thick:  the  Wing-walls,  9  feet  at  the  foundations;  retiring,  by  offsets, 
till  at  the  parapets  they  are  only  18  inches.  The  eastern  abutment  and  wing-walls 
are  founded  on  a  rock.  Those  on  the  western  side,  are  built  on  piles.  There  are 
upwards  of  7500  tons  of  Masonry  in  the  western  pier.  Many  of  the  stones,  com- 
posing both  piers,  weigh  from  3  to  12  tons.  A  number  of  massive  chains  are 
stretched,  in  various  positions,  across  the  piers.  These  are  worked  in  with  the 
masonry ;  the  exterior  whereof  is  clamped,  and  finished  in  the  most  substantial 
and  workmanlike  manner. 

The  Frame  of  the  superstructure  was  designed  and  erected  by  Timothy  Palmer, 
of  Newburyport,  in  Massachusetts.  It  is  a  masterly  piece  of  workmanship ;  com- 
bining, in  its  principles,  that  of  King-posts  and  Braces  with  that  of  a  Stone  arch. 
Half  of  each  post,  w  ith  the  brace  between  them,  w  ill  form  the  vousseur  of  an  arch ; 
and  lines  through  the  middle  of  each  post  would  describe  the  radii,  or  joints.  The 
letters  a  h  c,  &c,  in  the  draught,  refer  to  the  same  letters  below  ;  where  the  manner 
of  connecting  the  timbers  together,  is  shown  on  a  larger  scale.  The  position  of  the 
letters  is  the  same,  with  respect  to  each  piece,  in  both  places.  Two  of  these,  a  and 
6,  are  double,  or  in  two  thicknesses.  There  are  3  sections  of  the  Frame,  similar  to 
the  one  represented.  That  in  the  middle  divides  the  space  into  two  equal  parts ;  so 
that  those  passing,  in  opposite  directions,  are  prevented  from  interfering  with  each 
other.  The  Platform  for  travelling  rises  only  8  feet  from  a  horizontal  line ;  and  the 
Top  or  Cap-pieces,  are  parallel  to  this.  Of  the  sections,  the  middle  one  has  the 
most  pressure ;  owing  to  the  weight  of  transportation  hieing  thrown  nearer  to  that 
section  than  towards  the  sides  ;  to  which  the  footways  prevent  its  approach.  These 
footways  are  5  feet  in  width  ;  elevated  above  the  carriage-ways,  and  neatly  protected 
by  posts  and  chains.  T.  Palmer  is  the  original  inventor  of  this  kind  of  Wooden- 
bridge  Architecture.  He  permitted,  with  much  candor,  considerable  alterations  in 
the  plan,  on  which  he  had  erected  several  Bridges  in  New  England.  These  were 
accommodatory  to  the  intended  Cover,  and  were  so  much  approved  by  him,  that  he 
considers  the  Schuylkill  Bridge  superstructure  the  most  perfect  of  any  he  has  built. 

After  the  erection  of  the  Frame,  the  Editor  was  employed  by  the  President  and 
Directors  to  perform  the  workmanship  of  the  covering,  agreeably  to  a  design  fur- 
nished by  them  to  him.  This  design  of  the  Cover  being  original,  it  is  more  surprising 
that  it  has  not  many  faults,  than  that  few,  if  any,  can  be  found  ;  especially,  as  an 
accommodation  to  the  Frame  created  unavoidable  difficulties.  The  Editor  was  per- 
mitted to  make  some  additions,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Building  Committee.  He 
feels  Itself  grateful  for  the  assistance  he  has  had  ;  and  in  participating  with  those 
who  preceded  him,  in  the  approbation  of  the  work,  by  the  Board  and  their  Committee. 
At  their  suggestion,  the  under-work  of  the  side  covering  is  done  in  imitation  of 
masonry,  by  sprinkling  the  work  with  stone-dust  on  the  painting,  while  fresh.  The 
smalting  or  sprinkling  was  performed  with  so  much  ease  and  cheapness,  that  it  is 
hoped  it  will  introduce  a  like  mode  of  ornamenting  and  protecting  the  surface 
of  wooden  elevations,  of  other  descriptions,  where  protection  and  ornament  are 
required. 

Commodious  Wharves,  on  each  side  of  the  river,  have  been  made  by  the  Com- 
pany ;  not  only  to  protect  the  foundations  of  the  abutments  and  wings,  but  with  a 


/* 


THE   YOUNG    CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT.  47 

view  to  profit.  They  co-operate  with  the  other  improvements,  to  give  a  new  and 
interesting  front  to  our  city. 

It  is  a  peculiar  and  interesting  fact,  that  (except  the  vahiable  assistance  rendered 
in  its  commencement  by  W.  Weston,  who  was  then  about  returning  to  England)  no 
scientific  Engineer  has  been  employed,  in  any  part  of  this  great  undertaking.  Neither 
the  Board,  nor  their  Committee,  who  have  been  constantly  and  actively  engaged  in  all 
stages  of  the  Work,  profess  a  scientific  knowledge  of  Hydraulic  Architecture  ; 
thouorh  they  have  now  gained  much  practical  experience.  Yet  difficulties  have  been 
encountered,  and  overcome,  which  would  have  called  forth  the  talents,  and  practical 
knowledge,  of  the  ablest  Engineer.  The  Mechanics  and  W^orkmen  (T.  Palmer  and 
his  Assistants  excepted)  had,  from  the  beginning  of  the  undertaking,  new  and 
unknown  branches  of  their  business  to  learn.  Even  T.  Palmer  is  self-tmigld  in  the 
art  of  Wooden-bridge  building  ;  though  he  has  carried  it  to  such  high  perfection. 
It  is,  however,  believed  that  this  Bridge,  in  all  its  parts,  both  of  masonry  and  wood- 
work, will  not  suffer  by  a  comparison  with  one,  so  composed,  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  Its  workmanship  and  materials  will  stand  the  test  of  the  most  rigid  scrutiny. 
Both  the  plan  and  its  execution  reflect  credit  upon  those  concerned  in  the  enter- 
prise. So  far  as  I  have  information,  this  is  now  the  oi\\y*covered  wooden  Bridge,  in 
any  country,  except,  perhaps,  one  over  the  Limmat,  built  by  the  same  Swiss  car- 
penter who  erected  that  of  Schaufl'hausen,  since  destroyed.  I  have  frequently  seen 
and  carefully  inspected  the  draughts  of  this  much-celebrated  Bridge,  and  I  am  con- 
fident that  any  intelligent  and  candid  Architect,  on  examining  the  principles  of  both, 
would  give  a  decided  preference  to  the  Schuylkill  Bridge.  The  design  is  more 
simple,  its  strength  is  greater,  its  parts  are  better  combined  and  more  assistant  to 
each  other,  and  there  is  no  useless  timber,  or  unnecessary  complexity,  in  any  part. 

What  I  have  just  observed,  as  to  those  engaged  in  the  direction  or  execution  of  the 
work  of  the  Schuylkill  Bridge,  is  not  intended  as  adulatory,  or  disparaging,  to  any 
persons.  But  I  have  an  ardent  hope  that  others,  in  similar  undertakings,  will  be 
animated  by  their  successful  example ;  when  laboring  under  the  same,  or  greater 
disadvantages,  arising  from  the  want  of  experienced  and  scientific  Professors  of 
Architecture ;  although,  where  these  can  be  had,  for  great  undertakings,  they  ought, 
undoubtedly,  to  be  employed. 

As  a  well-wisher  to  all  public  improvements,  as  a  mechanic,  and  one  employed  to 
close  this  eminently  useful  erection,  I  think  it  my  duty  to  mention,  and  feel  a 
sensible  satisfaction  in  adding  to  the  foregoing  account ; 

That  I  have  experienced  the  important  advantages  of  ready  and  beneficial  advice ; 
clear,  prompt,  and  explicit  orders  ;  and  timely  and  ample  supplies.  Not  a  moment 
has  been  lost  by  delay  and  hesitation  in  directions,  want  of  provision  of  materials, 
or  deficiency,  in  punctuality  of  payment.  This  has  been  constantly  the  case,  through 
the  whole  progress  of  the  business,  as  the  workmen,  preceding  me  in  its  more 
difficult  stages,  have  testified.  Though  heavj'  expenditures  have  been  inevitably 
required,  the  greatest  attention  to  economy  has  been  practised. 

No  interested  or  personal  motives  induce  me  to  mention  these  circumstances. 
They  are  exemplary ;  and  essential  to  insure  the  completion  of  any  extensive  enter- 
prise. To  them,  I  am  persuaded,  is  to  be  chiefly  attributed,  the  success  of  this 
arduous  work.  From  inattention,  or  incapacity  in  these  indispensable  requisites, 
many  public  as  well  as  private  undertakings  in  all  countries  have  failed ;  and  Com- 
munities, and  the  individuals  employed  in  them,  have  been  involved  in  disappointment 
and  distress ;  if  not  in  irretriemj)le  ruin. 


48  THE    YOUNG   CARPENTER'S   ASSISTANT. 

The  Bridge  was  six  years  in  building,  and  cost  about  300,000  dollars,  including 
the  cash-moiety  of  the  purchase  of  the  site ;  for  which  40,000  dolls,  were  paid  to 
the  City  Corporation  ;  half  in  cash,  and  half  in  Bridge-shares. 

fl.  in. 

Length  of  the  Bridge 550  00 

Abutments  and  wing-walls 750  00 

Total  length 1300  00 

Span  of  small  arches,  each 150  00 

Ditto  of  middle  arch 194  10 

AVidth  of  the  Bridge 42  00 

Curvature  of  the  middle  arch 12  00 

Ditto  of  small  arches 10  00 

Amount  of  toll,  when  the  work  began,  for  the  year  1799,  arising  from  the  Floating-bridge     -     -$5,000 
Present  amount  of  toll  on  an  average  (1805)  the  rates  of  toll  in  several  instances  being  lower 

than  over  the  old  Floating-bridge 13,600 

Tolls  received  for  the  year  1832 ♦ 22,049  29 


ft.  in. 

Curvature  or  rise  of  the  carriage-way  or  road  8  00 

Height  in  the  clear  over  carriage-way    -     -  13  00 
Ditto  from  the  surface  of  the  river  to  the 

carriage-way 31  00 

Thickness  of  the  pier 20  00 

Length  of  ditto 62  00 

Depth  of  water  to  the  rock  at  the  western  pier  41     9 

Ditto  at  the  eastern  pier 21  00 


PLATE  62. 

•■  The  Bank  of  Pennsylvania. 

This  beautiful  Building  is  entirely  of  Marble,  and  is  a  neat  specimen  of  the  Ionic 
Order,  taken  from  an  ancient  Greek  Temple.  The  design  was  given  by,  and  the 
building  erected  under  the  superintendence  of,  Benjamin  H.  Latrobe.  The  front 
extends  51  feet  in  width,  and  the  whole  building,  including  the  Porticos  front  and 
back,  is  125  feet  in  depth.  This  building  was  three  years  in  hand,  and  was  finished 
in  the  year  1799. 

PLATE  63. 

The   Girard  Bank. 

This  superb  Building  is  an  elegant  specimen  of  the  Corinthian  Order ;  the  propor- 
tions taken  from  a  Roman  Temple,  called  the  Maison  Quarree,  at  Nismes,  in  the 
south  of  France.  The  front  extends  94  feet  by  72  deep,  exclusive  of  the  Portico. 
The  design  was  given  by  Samuel  Blodget,  of  this  city,  and  was  built  about  the 
year  1795. 

PLATE  64, 

Contains  an  elevation  of  the  Steeple  of  Christ  Church,  in  Second  street,  which, 
for  the  justness  of  its  proportions,  simplicity  and  symmetry  of  its  parts,  is  allowed 
by  good  judges  to  be  equal  if  not  superior  in  beauty  to  any  Steeple,  of  the  spire  kind, 
either  in  Europe  or  America.  It  was  erected  in  the  year  1755,  by  Robert  Smith, 
who  some  time  after  took  out  the  sills  of  the  wooden  part,  which  had  begun  to  decay, 
and  replaced  them  by  others. 

The  superstructure  of  this  Steeple  is  composed  of  three  distinct  well-proportioned 
parts  of  Architecture;  the  first  story,  with  its  small  Pediments  and  Attics,  forming 
one  ;  the  octagonal  part,  with  its  ogee-formed  Dome,  being  the  second  ;  and  the  spire 
and  its  pedest^al,  the  third.  These  three  parts  are  very  dissimilar ;  no  one  having 
anything  in  it  that  is  common  to  the  others ;  and  yet  they  agree  very  well  with  each 
other,  forming  one  complete  and  consistent  whole. 


PLATE  ai'. 


Ji 


PLATK  03. 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


A  DICTIONARY 


TERMS  USED   IN  ARCHITECTURK 


ABA— BAL 
A. 

ABACUS,  the  upper  member  of  a  column,  which 
serves  as  a  covering  to  the  capital ;  to  the  Tuscan, 
Doric,  and  Ionic, *it  is  square ;  to  the  modern  Ionic 
and  Corinthian,  each  side  is  arched,  or  cut  inwards, 
and  is  decorated  in  the  centre  with  a  flower  or 
other  ornament. 

Acanthus,  a  plant,  whose  leaves  form  an  ornament 
in  the  Corinthian  capital,  and  ai-e  said  to  have 
originally  given  rise  to  that  order. 

AcROTERiA,  a  kind  of  base,  placed  on  the  angles  of 
pediments,  usually  for  the  support  of  statues,  &c. 

Alae,  Aisles  ;  also  passages  in  theatres,  houses,  &c. 
also  in  rooms,  &c.  the  space  between  the  walls  and 
the  columns. 

Amphitheatre,  a  place  for  exhibiting  shows,  very 
spacious,  of  a  round  or  oval  figure,  with  many 
seats  rising  on  every  side.  The  area  in  the  middle 
was  called  Arena,  because  it  was  covered  with 
sand,  or  sawdust,  to  prevent  slipping,  and  to  absorb 
blood. 

Annulet,  a  small  square  moulding;,  which  serves  to 
crown  or  accompany  a  larger,  and  to  separate  the 
flutings  in  columns. 

Ant^,  a  species  of  pilasters  on  the  extremity  of  a 
wall,  usually  having  no  diminution  ;  nor  do  the 
mouldings  of  their  capitals  or  bases  always  resem- 
ble those  of  the  columns. 

AauEDUCT,  an  artificial  canal,  built  for  the  convey- 
ance of  water  from  one  place  to  another,  either 
running  under  ground,  or  rising  above  it. 

Arch,  part  of  a  circle  or  ellipsis. 

Architrave,  the  lowest  principal  member  of  an  en- 
tablature, lying  immediately  upon  the  abacus  of  the 
capital. 

Astragal,  a  small  round  moulding  with  two  an- 
nulets. 

Attic  Base,  Ionic  base. 

B. 
Baluster,  a  small  column,  or  pillar,  of  wood,  stone, 
&c.  used  on  terraces  or  tops  of  buildings  for  orna- 
ment, and  to  support  railing,  and,  when  continued, 
form  a  balustrade. 
Banister,  an  improper  name  for  baluster. 
49  N 


BAN— CAU 

Band,  a  general  term  for  a  low,  flat,  or  square 
member. 

Base,  the  lower  and  projecting  part  of  a  column  and 
pedestal,  on  which  the  shaft  is  placed, 

Butment,  or  Abutment,  supporters,  or  props,  on  or 
against  which  the  feet  of  arches  rest. 

Buttress,  a  kind  of  butment,  built  sometimes  arch- 
wise, as  in  Gothic  buildings ;  a  mass  of  stone 
or  brick  work,  serving  to  prop  or  support  buildings, 
walls,  &c.  on  the  outside,  where  their  great  height, 
or  weight,  requires  additional  strength. 


C. 

Capital,  the  uppermost  member  of  a  column,  which 
is  a  crown  or  head  thereto,  placed  immediately 
over  the  shaft,  and  under  the  architrave.  No 
column  is  complete  without  a  capital,  which  has  a 
distinguishing  character  for  each  order.  Tuscan 
and  Doric  capitals  consist  of  mouldings ;  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  capitals,  of  leaves  and  other  orna- 
ments. 

Cartouch,  an  ornament  in  sculpture  representing  a 
scroll  of  paper,  &c. 

Caryatides,  a  kind  of  order  in  Architecture,  in 
which  a  female  figure  is  applied  instead  of  a  pil- 
lar ;  the  origin  of  which  is  thus  handed  down  by 
Vitruvius :  The  inhabitants  of  Caria,  a  city  of 
Peloponessus,  made  a  league  with  the  Persians 
against  their  own  nation  ;  but,  the  Persians  being 
worsted,  they  were  afterwards  besieged  by  the 
victorious  party,  their  city  taken  and  reduced  to 
ashes,  the  men  put  to  the  sword,  and  the  women 
carried  away  captives.  To  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  this  victory,  the  Conquerors  caused  public  edifices 
to  be  erected,  in  which,  as  a  mark  of  degradation 
and  servility,  the  figures  of  the  Captives  were  used 
instead  of  columns,  thus  handing  down  to  posterity 
their  servility  and  punishment.  When  figures  of 
the  male  sex  arc  used,  they  are  called  Persians  or 
Perses. 

Cavetto,  a  concave  moulding  of  one-quarter  of  a 
circle. 

Caulicoli,  the  little  twists  or  volutes  under  the  flower 
on  the  abacus,  in  the  Corinthian  capital,  represent 


50 


TERMS  USED  IN  ARCHITECTURE. 


CEL— COR 

the  twisted  tops  of  the  acanthus  stalks  ;  are  called 
also  Helices. 
Cell,  in  an  ancient  temple,  is  the  inclosed  space  within 

the  walls. 
Centering,  or  Centre,  the  support  of  an  arch  while 

the  Masons  are  building  it. 
Cincture,  a  ring,  list,  or  fillet,  at  the  top  and  bottom 

of  the  shaft  of  the  column. 
Circus,  a  large  building  for  exhibiting  equestrian  ex- 
ercises in. 
Coffer-dam,  a  large  frame  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  erecting  works  on   the   bottom  of  deep 
waters ;  the  Coffer-dam  being  water-tight,  and  sur- 
rounding the  place  intended  to  work  on,  is  emptied 
of  the  water,  and  leaves  the  bottom  bare. 
Collar-beam,  timbers  placed  across  a  roof  from  the 

middle  of  one  rafter  to  another. 
CoLLARiN,  or  Collari.no,  the  neck  or  frieze  of  a  Tus- 
can or  Doric  capital. 
Colonnade,  a  series  or  continuation  of  columns. 
Column,  a  round  pillar  used  in  Architecture,  to  adorn 
or  support.    Columns  arc  of  four  kinds  ;  the  Tus- 
cati,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  each  of  which 
has  its  particular  proportion.    The  term  includes 
the  base  and  the  capital. 
Conge,  a  small  moulding  which  serves  to  separate 

larger  ones ;  called  also  List  or  Annulet. 
Console,  an  ornament  cut  on  the  key-stone  of  arches, 
with    a    projection,  capable  of  supporting,   busts, 
vases,  &c. 
Contour,  the  outline  of  a  figure,  or  piece  of  Archi- 
tecture. 
Coping  of  a  wall,  the  top  or  covering  made  sloping 

to  throw  off  water. 
CoRBF.iLLE,  carved  work,  representing  a  basket  with 
fruits  or  flowers,  serving  as  a  finish  to  some  other 
ornament.     It  sometimes  is  applied  to  the  vase  of 
the  Corinthian  capital,  the  word  originally  meaning 
a  basket. 
Corinthian  order,  one  of  the  n)ur  orders  of  Archi- 
tecture. 
Cornice,  the  upper  assemblage  of  members  in  an 
entablature,  commencing  at  the  frieze.  Each  order 
has  its  particular  cornice,  with  suitable  enrichments. 
To  the  Tuscan  it  is  quite  plain  ;  to  the  Doric  are 
added  gutta;  or  bells  in  the  sojit ;  the  Ionic  has 
plain  niodillions  ;  the  Corinthian  is  much  enriched, 
and  has  niodillions. 
Corona,  a  large  Hat  and  strong  member  in  a  cornice  ; 
Ctdled  also  the  Drip  or  Larnwr.  Its  use  is  to  screen 
the  under  part  of  the  work,  and,  from  its  shape,  to 
prevent  the  water  running  down  the  column.    It 
has  always  a  large  projection,  to  answer  its  pro- 
posed use. 
Corridor,  a  gallery  or   passage  in  large  buildings, 
which  leads  to  distinct  apartments. 


CUP— FRO 

Cupola,  a  round  roof  or  dome,  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
verted cup. 

Cyma,  Cima  or  Cymatium,  a  species  of  moulding, 
which  is  generally  the  upper  one  to  an  entablature. 
There  are  two  sorts  of  Ibis  moulding,  the  cyma 
recta  and  cyma  revcrsa,  which  is  commonly  called 
an  ogee. 

D. 

Dentil,    an    ornament    resembling    teeth,    used    in 

Ionic  and  Corinthian  cornices. 
Die,  the  square  or  naked  piece  in  a  pedestal,  that  part 

which  is  between  the  base  and  the  capital. 
Dome,  a  spherical  roof.    See  Cupola. 
Doric  order,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  Architecture. 
Drops,  or  Guttce,  in  the  Doric  entablature,  are  small 

inverted  pyramids  or  cones,  immediately  under  the 

triglyph. 

E. 

Echinus,  is  properly  the  egg  and  anchor  ornament, 
peculiar  to  the  Ionic  capital.  It  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  whole  member,  instead  of  ovalo. 

Entablature,  an  ornament  or  assemblage  of  parts, 
supported  by  a  column  or  pilaster  over  the  capital. 
Each  order  of  columns  has  a  peculiar  entablature, 
divided  into  three  principal  parts ;  the  architrave, 
which  is  divided  into  two  or  more yas«o,  and  rests 
upon  the  capital.  'Yhe  frieze  is  next,  and  may  be 
plain  or  ornamented.  The  cornice  is  the  top  or 
crowning  part. 

F. 

Facade,  the  front  view  or  elevation  of  a  building. 

Fascia,  a  flat  member  in  the  entablature  of  an  order, 
representing  a  band  or  broad  fillet  in  an  architrave. 
If  divided,  these  divisions  are  called  the  first  fascia, 
the  second  fascia,  &c. 

Fillet.   See  Annulet. 

Flutings,  the  hollows  or  channels,  which  are  cut 
perpendicularly  in  columns  by  way  of  ornament, 
and  which  should  always  both  begin  and  end  in  the 
shaft,  near  the  extremity  of  the  aiwphyges  ;  though 
there  arc  examples  to  the  contrary.  When  flutings 
are  used,  the  capital  should  be  enriched. 

Foliage,  an  assemblage  of  leaves. 

Fret,  an  ornament  laid  on  jjlain  narrow  surfaces, 
formed  by  one  or  more  fillets  running  along  in  a 
zigzag  direction ;  generally  in  right  angles,  and 
keeping  a  S])ace  between  each  fillet  equal  in  width 
to  the  fillet  itself. 

Frize,  or  Frieze,  the  middle  member  ofan  entablature; 
having  the  architrave  below,  and  the  cornice 
above. 

Frontispiece,  sometimes  signifies  the  whole  face  or 
aspect  of  a  building  ;  but  is  more  properly  applied 
to  the  decorated  entrance  of  a  house. 


TERMS  USED  IN  ARCHITECTURE. 


51 


c 


FUS— MOU 

Fust,  the  shaft  of  a  column,  or  that  part  which  is 
between  the  base  and  the  capital. 

G. 

GlKDERS,  large  pieces  of  timber  in  flooring,  laid  from 
one  wall  to  another,  when  the  distance  is  too  great 
for  common  joists. 

Glyphs,  the  perpendicular  channels  cut  in  the  tri- 
glyphs  of  the  Doric  frieze. 

Gothic,  a  peculiar  style  of  Architecture,  distinct 
from  the  Grecian  or  Roman,  derived  from  the 
Goths,  or  rather  from  the  Saracens. 

Gcilloches,  ornaments  made  by  circular  fillets  cross- 
ing and  recrossing  each  other,  generally  encom- 
passing a  patera  or  flower. 

H. 

Hastmer-beam  :  when  the  ceiling  of  a  large  building 
is  vaulted,  the  tie-beam  of  the  roof  is  broken  in  the 
middle,  and  raised  to  admit  of  the  curvature  of  the 
ceiling ;  the  middle  of  the  beam  being  secured  to 
the  collar-beam,  it  is  then  called  a  hammer-beam. 

I. 

Impost,  a  facia  or  small  cornice  which  crowns  a  pier 
or  pilaster,  and  from  which  an  arch  springs. 

Insulated,  standing  alone,  or  detached  from  any 
contiguous  building,  &c. 

Intercohimniation,  the  space  between  two  columns. 

Ionic  order,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  Architecture. 

K. 

Key-stone,  the  highest  stone  of  an  arch  ;  to  which  a 
projection  is  usually  given,  and  which  is  sometimes 
cut  in  ornaments. 

King-post,  the  middle  upright  post  in  a  set  of  princi- 
pal rafters  in  large  roofs ;  being  supported  by  the 
rafters,  it  supports  the  middle  of  the  beam,  and 
keeps  it  from  sagging. 


Lacunaria,  panels  or  coffers  in  ceilings,  or  in  the 
soflits  of  cornices,  &c. 

M. 

Metope,  the  interval  or  square  space  between  the 
triglyphs  in  the  Doric  frieze. 

Mezzanine,  or  Mezzetti,  small  or  low  stories  between 
principal  ones,  used  as  servants'  apartments. 

Minute,  an  architectonic  measure  ;  the  lower  diame- 
ter of  a  column  divided  into  sixty  parts,  each  part 
is  a  minute. 

MoDiLLioN,  an  ornament   resembling  a   bracket,  in 

■    the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  cornices. 

Mouldings,  those  parts  which  project  beyond  the 
base  or  perpendicular  face  of  a  wall,  column,  &c. 
intended  only  for  ornament,  whether  round,  flat,  I 


MUT— PR! 

or  curved.  The  regular  mouldings  are  1st,  the 
list  or  annulet ;  2d,  the  astragal  or  head  ;  ."Jd,  the 
cyma  reversa,  or  ogee ;  4th,  the  cyma  recta  ;  5th, 
the  cavttto,  or  hollow  ;  6th,  the  ovolo,  or  quarter- 
round  ;  7th,  the  scolia  ;  8th,  the  torus. 

MuTULus,  an  ornament  in  the  Doric  cornice,  answering 
to  a  modillion  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  entabla- 
tures. 

N. 

Niche,  a  cavity  or  hollow  in  a  wall  for  statues,  &c. 

O 

Obelisk,  a  tall  pyramid. 

Ogee,  a  cyma  reversa. 

Order,  in  Architecture,  a  column  entire,  consisting 

of  base,  shaft,  and  capital,  with  an  entablature. 
Ova,  or  omm.     See  Echinus. 
OvoLO,  a  moulding  which  projects   one-quarter  of  a 

circle ;  called  also  a  quarter-round. 


Pedestal,  a  square  body  on  which  columns,  &c.  are 
placed. 

Pediment,  a  low  triangular  ornament  in  the  front  of 
buildings,  and  over  doors,  windows,  &c. 

Pier,  a  kind  of  pilaster  or  buttress,  to  support, 
strengthen,  or  ornament.  The  pier  of  a  bridge,  is 
the  foot  or  support  of  the  arch.  The  wall  between 
windows  or  doors.  Also,  square  pillars  of  stone  or 
brick,  to  which  gates  are  hung. 

Perystylium,  a  range  of  columns  or  colonnade, 
within  a  court  or  building  like  a  cloister. 

Piazza,  a  continued  archway  or  vaulting,  under 
which  to  walk,  &c. 

Pilaster,  a  square  pillar  or  column,  usually  placed 
against  a  wall. 

Pillar.  This  word  is  generally  used  in  Architecture, 
in  common  with  Column  ;  though,  strictly  speaking, 
they  are  different :  thus,  the  supporters  in  Gothic 
Architecture  are  pillars ;  but  can  never  be  properly 
termed  columns,  varying  in  shape  and  every  par- 
ticular from  the  latter. 

Planceer,  a  reversed  plan  of  a  cornice  or  other 
moulding  ;  or  a  view  of  the  same  from  below. 

Plat-band,  any  flat  square  moulding  with  little  pro- 
jection. The  different  fascias  of  an  architrave  are 
called  plat-bands ;  the  same  is  applied  to  the  list 
between  flulings,  &c. 

Plinth,  the  lower  member  of  a  base. 

Portico,  a  continued  range  of  columns  covered  at 
top,  to  shelter  from  the  weather ;  also,  a  common 
name  to  buildings  which  have  covered  walks  sup- 
ported by  pillars. 

Prince-post,  a  post  placed  upright,  in  framing  of 
principal  rafters,  between  the  king-post  and  the 
end  of  the  tie-boam,  giving  additional  support  to  the 
tie-beam. 


52 


TERMS  USED  IN  ARCHITECTURE. 


PRI— SOF 

Pbincipal  rafters.  Large  roofs  are  supported  by 
sets  of  framing  placed  at  from  8  to  10  feet  apart: 
these  frames  are  generally  composed  of  tie-beams, 
king-posts,  prince-posts,  braces  or  trusses,  and 
rafters. 

Profile,  the  outline  or  contour  of  any  building,  &c. 

PiTRLiNEs,  square  pieces  of  timber  laid  from  one  set 
of  principal  rafters  to  another  ;  on  these  are  laid 
the  jack-rafters  or  small  rafters  to  receive  the 
covering. 

Pyramid,  a  structure  which,  from  a  square,  triangu- 
lar, or  other  base,  rises  gradually  to  a  point. 

Q. 
Quarter-round,  a  moulding.    See  Ovolo. 
Quoins,  stones  or  other  materials,  put  in  the  angles 
of  buildings,  to  strengthen  them. 

R. 

Relievo,  signifies  the  projection  of  any  carved  orna- 
ment. 

Rotunda,  a  building  which  is  round,  both  within  and 
without. 

Rustic.    The  term  is  applied   to  those  stones  in  a 
building  which  are  hatched  or  picked  in  holes,  re- 
sembling ajiatural  rough  appearance. 
S. 

Saloon,  a  lofty,  vaulted,  spacious  hall  or  apartment. 

Scotia,  a  hollow  moulding  used  in  bases  to  columns. 

Section  of  a  building,  represents  it  as  if  cut  per- 
pendicularly trom  the  roof  downwards,  and  serves 
to  show  the  internal  decorations  and  distribution. 

Shaft,  the  trunk  or  body  of  a  column,  between  the 
base  and  the  capital. 

Soffit,  the  under  part  or  ceiling  of  a  cornice,  which 
is  usually  ornamented.  The  under  part  of  the 
corona  is  called  the  soffit.  The  word  is  also  applied 
to  the  ceiling  of  an  arch,  the  under  side  of  an 
architrave,  &c. 


TEN— ZOC 


T^NiA,  the  upper  member  of  the  Doric  architrave  ;  a 
kind  of  listel. 

Tie-beams,  large  timbers  forming  the  base-line  of  a 
set  of  principal  rafters. 

Torus,  or  Tore,  a  large  semicircular  moulding,  used 
in  the  base  of  columns. 

Transom,  a  piece  placed  over  a  door,  when  there  is 
to  be  an  opening  for  light  immediately  over  the  door. 
When  the  opening  over  is  circular,  it  is  generally 
called  an  impost. 

Triglyph,  an  ornament  peculiar  to  the  Doric  frieze. 

Truss,  or  Brace,  pieces  of  timber  used  in  framing,  to 
support  the  middle  of  any  great  span. 

Tuscan  order,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  Archi- 
tecture. 

Tympanum,  the  flat  surface  or  space  within  a  pedi- 
ment. 


Vase,  the  body  of  a  Corinthian  capital ;  also,  an  or- 
nament used  in  Architecture,  &c. 

Vault,  an  arched  roof,  the  stones  or  materials  of 
which  are  so  placed  as  to  support  each  other. 

Volute,  the  scroll  or  spiral  horn,  used  in  Ionic 
capitals. 

W. 

Wall-plate,  a  piece  of  timber  laid  on  the  top  of  a 
wall,  on  which  are  laid  the  joists  and  framing  of  the 
roof. 

Z. 

ZocLE,  or  Soccolo,  a  low  square  member,  which 
serves  to  elevate  a  statue,  vase,  &c. ;  also,  when  a 
range  of  columns  is  erected  on  one  continued  high 
plinth,  it  is  called  a  Zocle.  It  differs  from  a  pedes- 
tal, being  without  base  or  cornice. 


^Sbj 


tfs/^' 


fr. 


\ 


